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As I'm going to argue repeatedly
today, biology has become a science

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over the last 50 years. And,
as a consequence, we can talk

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about some basic principles.
We can talk about some laws and

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then begin to apply them to very
interesting biological problems.

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And so our general strategy this
semester, as it has been in the past,

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is to spend roughly the first half
of the semester talking about the

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basic laws and rules that govern
all forms of biological life

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on this planet. And you
can see some of the specific

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kinds of problems, including
the problem of cancer,

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how cancer cells begin to grow
abnormally, how viruses proliferate,

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how the immune system functions,
how the nervous system functions,

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stem cells and how they work and
their impact on modern biology,

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molecular medicine, and finally
perhaps the future of biology and

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even certain aspects of evolution.
The fact of the matter is that we

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now understand lots of these things
in ways that were inconceivable 50

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years ago. And now we could begin
to talk about things that 50 years

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ago people could not have dreamt of.
When I took this course, and I did

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take it in 1961, we didn't
know about 80% of what we

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now know. You cannot
say that about mechanics

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in physics, you cannot say that
about circuit theory in electronics,

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and you cannot say that,
obviously, about chemistry.

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And I'm mentioning that to you
simply because this field has

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changed enormously over the ensuing
four decades. I won't tell you what

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grade I got in 7. 1
because if I would,

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and you might pry it out
of me later in the semester,

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you probably would never
show up again in lecture.

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But in any case, please
know that this has been an

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area of enormous ferment. And
the reason it's been in such

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enormous ferment is of the discovery
in 1953 by Watson and Crick of the

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structure of the DNA double helix.
Last year I said that we were so

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close to this discovery that both
Watson and Crick are alive and with

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us and metabolically active,
and more than 50 years, well,

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exactly 50 years after the discovery.
Sadly, several months ago one of the

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two characters, Francis
Crick died well into his

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eighties, and so he is no longer
with us. But I want to impress on

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you the notion that 200 years from
now, we will talk about Watson and

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Crick the same way that people
talk about Isaac Newton in terms of

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physics. And that will be so
because we are only beginning to

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perceive the ramifications of
this enormous revolution that was

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triggered by their discovery.
That is the field of molecular

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biology and genetics and
biochemistry which has totally

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changed our perceptions of how
life on Earth is actually organized.

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Much of the biology to which you
may have been exposed until now has

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been a highly descriptive science.
That is you may have had courses in

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high school where you had to
memorize the names of different

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organisms, where you had to
understand how evolutionary

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phylogenies were organized, where
you had to learn the names of

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different organelles, and
that biology was, for you,

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a field of memorization.
And one point we would like,

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hopefully successfully, to drive
home this semester is the notion

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that biology has now achieved a
logical and rational coherence that

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allows us to articulate a whole set
of rules that explain how all life

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forms on this planet are organized.
It's no longer just a collection of

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jumbled facts. Indeed,
if one masters these

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molecular and genetic principles,
one can understand in principle a

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large number of processes that exist
in the biosphere and begin to apply

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one's molecular biology to
solving new problems in this arena.

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One of the important ideas that
we'll refer to repeatedly this

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semester is the fact that many of
the biological attributes that we

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posses now were already developed
a very long time ago early in the

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inception of life on this planet.
So if we look at the history of

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Earth, here the history of Earth
is given as 5 billion years,

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this is in thousands obviously.
The Earth is probably not that old.

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It's probably 4.5 or 4 or
3 billion years but, anyhow,

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that's when the planet first
aggregated, as far as we know.

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One believes that no life existed
for perhaps the first half billion

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years, but after half a billion
years, which is a lot of time to be

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sure, there already begins to be
traces of life forms on the surface

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of this planet.
And that, itself,

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is an extraordinary testimonial,
a testimonial to how evolutionary

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processes occur. We don't
know how many planets

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there are in the universe
where similar things happened.

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And we don't know whether the
solution that were arrived at by

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other life systems in other
places in the universe,

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which we may or may not ever
discover, were the similar solutions

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to the ones that have
been arrived at here.

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It's clear, for example, that
to the extent that Darwinian

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Evolution governs the development
of life forms on this planet that is

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not an artifact of the Earth.
Darwinian Evolution is a logic

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which is applicable to all life
forms and all biosystems that may

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exist in the universe, even
the ones we have not discovered.

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However, there are specific
solutions that were arrived at

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during the development of life on
Earth which may be peculiar to Earth.

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The structure of
the DNA double helix.

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The use of ribose in deoxyribose.
The choice of amino acids to make

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proteins. And those specific
solutions may not be universal.

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Whether they're universal in the
sense of existing in all life forms

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across the planet, the
fact is that many of the

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biochemical and molecular solutions
that are represented in our own

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cells today, these solutions,
these problems were solved already 2

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and 3 billion years ago. And
once they were solved they were

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kept and conserved almost unchanged
for the intervening 2 or 3 billion

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years. And that strong degree of
conservation means that we can begin

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to figure out what these principles
were early on in evolution of life

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on this planet and begin to apply
them to all modern life forms.

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From the point of view of evolution,
almost all animals are identical in

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terms of their biochemistry and
in terms of their physiology.

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The molecular biology
of all eukaryotic cells,

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that is all cells that have
nuclei in them, is almost the same.

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And, therefore, we're not going
to focus much in this course this

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semester on specific species but
rather focus on general principles

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that would allow us to understand
the cells and the tissues and the

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physiological processes that are
applicable to all species on the

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surface of the planet. Let's
just look here and get us

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some perspective on this because,
the fact of the matter is, is that

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multicellular life forms, like
ourselves, we have, the average

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human being has roughly three
or four or five times ten to the

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thirteenth cells in the body.
That's an interesting figure.

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The average human being goes
through roughly ten to the sixteenth

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cell divisions in a lifetime,
i.e. ten to the sixteenth times in

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your body there will be cells
that divide, grow and divide.

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Every day in your body there are
roughly ten to the eleventh cells

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that grow and divide. Think
of that, ten to the eleventh.

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And you can divide that by the
number of minutes in a day and come

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up with an astounding degree of
cellular replication going on.

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All of these processes can be
traceable back to solutions that

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were arrived at very early in the
evolution of life on this planet,

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perhaps 550, 600 million years ago
when the first multicellular life

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forms began to evolve. Before
that time, that is to say

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before 500 to 600 million years ago,
there were single-cell organisms.

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For example, many of them survive
to this day. There were yeast-like

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organisms. And there were bacteria.
And we make one large and major

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distinction between the two major
life forms on the planet in terms of

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cells. One are the prokaryotic
cells. And these are the cells of

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bacteria, I'll show you an image
of them shortly, which lack nuclei.

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And the eukaryotic cells which
poses nuclei and indeed have a highly

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complex cytoplasm and
overall cellular architecture.

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We think that the prokaryotic life
forms on this planet evolved first

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probably on the order of 3
billion years ago, maybe 3.

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billion years ago, and that about
1. billion years ago cells evolved

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that contained nuclei.
Again, I'll show them to you

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shortly. And these
nucleated cells,

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the eukaryotes then existed in
single-cell form for perhaps the

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next 700 or 800 million years
until multi-cellular aggregates of

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eukaryotic cells first assembled
to become the ancestors of the

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multi-cellular plants and the
multi-cellular animals that exist on

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the surface of the Earth today.
To put that in perspective, our

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species has only been on
the planet for about 150,

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00 years. So we've all been
here for that period of time.

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And a 150,000 sounds like
a long time, in one sense,

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but it's just “a blink in the eye
of the Lord” as one says in terms of

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the history of life on this planet,
and obviously the history of the

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universe which is somewhere
between 13 and 15 billion years old.

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You can begin to see that the
appearance of humans represents a

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very small segment of the entire
history of life on this planet.

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And here you can roughly see the way
that life has developed during this

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period of time from the fossil
record. You see that many plants

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actually go back a reasonable length
of time, but not more than maybe 300

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or 400 million years.
Here are the Metazoa.

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And this
represents --

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Well, can you hear me?
Wow, 614 came in handy.

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OK. So if we talk about
another major division,

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we talk about protozoa and metazoa.
The suffix zoa refers to animals,

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as in a zoo. And the protozoa
represents single-cell organisms.

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The metazoa represent multi-cellular
organisms. And we're going to be

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focusing largely on the biology
of metazoan cells this semester,

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and we're going to be spending
almost no time on plants.

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It's not that plants aren't
important. It's just that we don't

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have time to cover everything.
And, indeed, the molecular biology

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that you learn this semester will
ultimately enable you to understand

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much about the physiology of
multi-cellular plants which happen

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to be called metaphyta, a term
you may never hear again in

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your entire life after
today. That reminds me,

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by the way, that both Dr. Lander
and I sometimes use big words.

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And people come up to me afterwards
each semester each year and say

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Professor Weinberg, why
don't you talk simple,

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why don't you talk the way we
heard things in high school?

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And please understand that if I use
big words sometimes it's to broaden

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your vocabulary so you
can learn big words.

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One of the things you should be able,
one of the big take-home lessons of

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this course should be that
your vocabulary is expanded.

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Not just your scientific vocabulary
but your general working English

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vocabulary. Perhaps the
biggest goal of this course,

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by the way, is not that you learn
the names of all the organelles and

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cells but that you learn how to
think in a scientific and rational

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way. Not just because of this
course but that this course

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helps you to do so. And as
such, we don't place that

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much emphasis on memorization but
to be able to think logically about

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scientific problems. Here
we can begin to see the

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different kinds of metazoa, the
animals. Here are the metaphyta

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and here are the protozoa,
different words for all of these.

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And here we see our own
phylum, the chordates. And,

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again, keep in mind that this line
right down here is about 550 to 600

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million years ago, just to
give you a time scale for

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what's been going
on, on this planet.

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One point we'll return to repeatedly
throughout the semester is that all

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life forms on this planet
are related to one another.

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It's not as if life was invented
multiple times on this planet and

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that there are multiple independent
inventions to the extent that life

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arose more than once on this
planet, and it may have. The other

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alternative or competing life forms
were soon wiped out by our ancestors,

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our single-cellular
ancestors 3 billion years ago.

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And, therefore, everything
that exists today on this

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planet represents the descendents of
that successful group of cells that

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existed a very long time ago.
Here we have all this family tree

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of the different metazoan forms that
have been created by the florid hand

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of evolution. And we're not going
to study those phylogenies simply

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because we want to understand
principles that explain all of them.

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Not just how this or that particular
organism is able to digest its food

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or is able to reproduce.
Here's another thing we're not

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going to talk about. We're
not going to talk about

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complicated life forms. We're
not going to talk very much,

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in fact hardly at all, about
ecology. This is just one such thing,

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the way that a parasite is able to,
a tapeworm is able to infect people.

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This is, again, I'm showing you
this not to say this is what we're

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going to talk about, we're
not going to talk about that.

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We're not going to talk about that.
There's a wealth of detail that's

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known about the way life exists
in the biosphere that we're simply

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going to turn our backs on by
focusing on some basic principles.

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We're also not going to talk about
anatomy. Here in quick order are

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some of the anatomies you may
have learned about in high school,

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and I'm giving them to you
each with a three-second minute,

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a three-second showing to say
we're not going to do all this.

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And rather just to reinforce
our focus, we're going to limit

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ourselves to a very finite
part of the biosphere.

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And here is one way of depicting
the biosphere. It's obviously an

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arbitrary way of doing so
but it's quite illustrative.

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Here we start from molecules.
And, in fact, we will occasionally

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go down to submolecular atoms.
And here's the next dimension of

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00:15:48,000 --> 00:15:52,000
complexity, organelles. That
is these specialized little

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00:15:52,000 --> 00:15:55,000
organs within cells. We're
going to focus on them as

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00:15:55,000 --> 00:15:59,000
well. We're going to focus on
cells. And when we start getting to

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00:15:59,000 --> 00:16:03,000
tissues, we're going to start
not talking so much about them.

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00:16:03,000 --> 00:16:07,000
And we're not going to talk about
organisms and organs or entire

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00:16:07,000 --> 00:16:12,000
organisms or higher complex
ecological communities.

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00:16:12,000 --> 00:16:16,000
And the reason we're doing that is
that for 40 years in this department,

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00:16:16,000 --> 00:16:21,000
and increasingly in the rest of the
world there is the acceptance of the

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00:16:21,000 --> 00:16:25,000
notion that if we understand what
goes on down here in these first

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00:16:25,000 --> 00:16:30,000
three steps, we can understand
almost everything else in principle.

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00:16:30,000 --> 00:16:34,000
Of course, in practice we may not
be able to apply those principles to

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00:16:34,000 --> 00:16:38,000
how an organism works or to
how the human brain works yet.

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00:16:38,000 --> 00:16:42,000
Maybe we never will. But,
in general, if one begins to

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00:16:42,000 --> 00:16:46,000
understand these principles down
here, one can understand much about

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00:16:46,000 --> 00:16:50,000
how organismic embryologic develop
occurs, one can understand a lot

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00:16:50,000 --> 00:16:54,000
about a whole variety of disease
processes, one can understand how

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00:16:54,000 --> 00:16:58,000
one inherits disease susceptibilities,

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00:16:58,000 --> 00:17:02,000
and one can understand why many
organisms look the way they do,

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00:17:02,000 --> 00:17:07,000
i.e. the process of
developmental biology.

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00:17:07,000 --> 00:17:11,000
And so, keep in mind that if you
came to hear about all of these

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00:17:11,000 --> 00:17:15,000
things, we're going to let you down.
That's not what this is going to be

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00:17:15,000 --> 00:17:19,000
about. This also dictates the
dimensions of the universe that

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00:17:19,000 --> 00:17:23,000
we're going to talk about because
we're going to limit ourselves to

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00:17:23,000 --> 00:17:27,000
the very, very small and not to
the microscopic. On some occasions

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00:17:27,000 --> 00:17:31,000
we'll limit ourselves to items that
are so small you cannot see them in

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00:17:31,000 --> 00:17:36,000
the light microscope. On other
occasions we may widen our

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00:17:36,000 --> 00:17:40,000
gaze to look at things that
are as large as a millimeter,

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00:17:40,000 --> 00:17:45,000
but basically we're staying very,
very small. Again, because we view,

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00:17:45,000 --> 00:17:50,000
correctly or not, the fact that the
big processes can be understood by

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00:17:50,000 --> 00:17:54,000
delving into the molecular details
of what happens invisibly and cannot

250
00:17:54,000 --> 00:17:59,000
be seen by most ways of visualizing
things, including the light and

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00:17:59,000 --> 00:18:04,000
often even the electron microscope.
Keep in mind that 50 years ago we

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00:18:04,000 --> 00:18:08,000
didn't know any of this,
for all practical purposes,

253
00:18:08,000 --> 00:18:12,000
or very little of this. And keep
in mind that we're so close to this

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00:18:12,000 --> 00:18:16,000
revolution that we don't really
understand its ramifications.

255
00:18:16,000 --> 00:18:21,000
I imagine it will be another 50
years before we really begin to

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00:18:21,000 --> 00:18:25,000
appreciate the fallout, the
long-term consequences of this

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00:18:25,000 --> 00:18:29,000
revolution in biology which began
51 years ago. And so you're part of

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00:18:29,000 --> 00:18:34,000
that and you're going to experience
it much more than my generation did.

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00:18:34,000 --> 00:18:38,000
And indeed one of the reasons why
MIT decided about 10 or 12 years ago

260
00:18:38,000 --> 00:18:42,000
that every MIT undergraduate needed
to have at least one semester of

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00:18:42,000 --> 00:18:47,000
biology is that biology, in
the same way as physics and

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00:18:47,000 --> 00:18:51,000
chemistry and math, has become
an integral part of every

263
00:18:51,000 --> 00:18:55,000
educated person's knowledge-base in
terms of their ability to deal with

264
00:18:55,000 --> 00:18:59,000
the world in a rational way.
In terms of public policy,

265
00:18:59,000 --> 00:19:03,000
in terms of all kinds of ethical
issues, they need to understand

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00:19:03,000 --> 00:19:06,000
what's really going on. Many
of the issues that one talks

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00:19:06,000 --> 00:19:09,000
about today about bioethics are
articulated by people who haven't

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00:19:09,000 --> 00:19:13,000
the vaguest idea about what
we're talking about this semester.

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00:19:13,000 --> 00:19:16,000
You will know much more than they
will, and hopefully some time down

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00:19:16,000 --> 00:19:20,000
the road, when you become more and
more influential voices in society,

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00:19:20,000 --> 00:19:23,000
you'll be able to contribute
what you understood here,

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00:19:23,000 --> 00:19:27,000
what you learned here
to that discussion.

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00:19:27,000 --> 00:19:31,000
Right now much of bioethical
discussion is fueled by people who

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00:19:31,000 --> 00:19:35,000
haven't the vaguest idea what a
ribosome or mitochondrion or even a

275
00:19:35,000 --> 00:19:39,000
gene is, and therefore is often
a discussion of mutually shared

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00:19:39,000 --> 00:19:43,000
ignorance which you can
diffuse by learning some basics,

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00:19:43,000 --> 00:19:47,000
by learning some of the essentials.
Here is the complexity of the cell

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00:19:47,000 --> 00:19:51,000
we're going to focus on largely
this semester, which is to say the

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00:19:51,000 --> 00:19:55,000
eukaryotic rather than
the prokaryotic cell.

280
00:19:55,000 --> 00:19:59,000
And this is just to give you a
feeling for the overall dimensions

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00:19:59,000 --> 00:20:03,000
of the cell and refer to many of
the landmarks that will repeatedly be

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00:20:03,000 --> 00:20:08,000
brought up during the
course of this semester.

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00:20:08,000 --> 00:20:11,000
Here is the nucleus. The
term karion comes from the

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00:20:11,000 --> 00:20:15,000
Greek meaning a seed or a kernel.
And the nucleus is what gives the

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00:20:15,000 --> 00:20:19,000
eukaryotic cell its name.
Within the nucleus, although not

286
00:20:19,000 --> 00:20:22,000
shown here, are the
chromosomes which carry DNA.

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00:20:22,000 --> 00:20:26,000
You may have learned that a long
time ago. Outside of the nucleus is

288
00:20:26,000 --> 00:20:30,000
this entire vast array of organelles
that goes from the nuclear membrane,

289
00:20:30,000 --> 00:20:34,000
and I'm point to it right here,
all the way out to the outside

290
00:20:34,000 --> 00:20:37,000
of the cell. The outside
limiting membrane,

291
00:20:37,000 --> 00:20:41,000
the outer membrane of the cell
is called the plasma membrane.

292
00:20:41,000 --> 00:20:44,000
And between the nucleus and the
plasma membrane there is an enormous

293
00:20:44,000 --> 00:20:48,000
amount of biological and
biochemical activity taking place.

294
00:20:48,000 --> 00:20:52,000
Here are, for example,
the mitochondria. And the

295
00:20:52,000 --> 00:20:55,000
mitochondria, as one has learned,
are the sources of energy production

296
00:20:55,000 --> 00:20:59,000
in the cell. And, therefore,
we'll touch on them very

297
00:20:59,000 --> 00:21:03,000
briefly. This is an
artist's conception of

298
00:21:03,000 --> 00:21:07,000
what a mitochondrion looks like.
Almost always artists' conceptions

299
00:21:07,000 --> 00:21:12,000
of these things have only vague
resemblance to the reality.

300
00:21:12,000 --> 00:21:16,000
But, in any case, you can begin to
get a feeling for what one thinks

301
00:21:16,000 --> 00:21:21,000
about their appearance. Here
are mitochondria sliced open

302
00:21:21,000 --> 00:21:25,000
by the hand of the artist.
And, interestingly, mitochondria

303
00:21:25,000 --> 00:21:30,000
have their own DNA in them.
One now accepts the fact that

304
00:21:30,000 --> 00:21:34,000
mitochondria are the descendents of
bacteria which insinuated themselves

305
00:21:34,000 --> 00:21:39,000
into the cytoplasms of larger cells,
roughly 1.5 billion years ago, and

306
00:21:39,000 --> 00:21:43,000
began to do a specialized job
which increasingly became the job of

307
00:21:43,000 --> 00:21:47,000
energy production within cells.
To this day, mitochondria retain

308
00:21:47,000 --> 00:21:51,000
some vestigial attributes of the
bacterial ancestors which initially

309
00:21:51,000 --> 00:21:54,000
colonized or parasitized
the cytoplasm of the cell.

310
00:21:54,000 --> 00:21:58,000
When I say parasitized,
you might imagine that the

311
00:21:58,000 --> 00:22:02,000
mitochondria are taking
advantage of the cell.

312
00:22:02,000 --> 00:22:06,000
But, in fact, the mitochondria
represent the essential sources of

313
00:22:06,000 --> 00:22:11,000
energy production in the cell.
Without our mitochondria, as you

314
00:22:11,000 --> 00:22:16,000
might learn by taking cyanide, for
example, you don't live for very

315
00:22:16,000 --> 00:22:20,000
many minutes. And the vestiges of
bacterial origins of mitochondria

316
00:22:20,000 --> 00:22:25,000
are still apparent in the fact that
mitochondria still have their own

317
00:22:25,000 --> 00:22:30,000
DNA molecule, their own chromosome.
They still have their own ribosomes

318
00:22:30,000 --> 00:22:34,000
and protein synthetic apparatus,
even though the vast majority of the

319
00:22:34,000 --> 00:22:39,000
proteins inside mitochondria
are imported from the cytoplasm,

320
00:22:39,000 --> 00:22:43,000
i.e., these vestigial bacteria now
rely on proteins made by the cell at

321
00:22:43,000 --> 00:22:48,000
large that are imported into the
mitochondrion to supplement the

322
00:22:48,000 --> 00:22:53,000
small number of vestigial bacterial
proteins which are still made here

323
00:22:53,000 --> 00:22:57,000
inside the mitochondrion and
used for essential function

324
00:22:57,000 --> 00:23:01,000
in energy production. Here
is the Golgi apparatus.

325
00:23:01,000 --> 00:23:05,000
And the Golgi apparatus up here is
used for the production of membranes.

326
00:23:05,000 --> 00:23:08,000
As one will learn throughout the
semester, the membranes of a cell

327
00:23:08,000 --> 00:23:12,000
are in constant flux and are
being pulled in and remodeled and

328
00:23:12,000 --> 00:23:15,000
regenerated. The Golgi apparatus
is very important for that.

329
00:23:15,000 --> 00:23:19,000
Here's the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. That's important for the

330
00:23:19,000 --> 00:23:22,000
synthesis of proteins which are
going to be displayed on the surface

331
00:23:22,000 --> 00:23:26,000
of cells, you don't
see them depicted here,

332
00:23:26,000 --> 00:23:30,000
or are going to be secreted
into the extracellular space.

333
00:23:30,000 --> 00:23:33,000
Here are the ribosomes, which
I might have mentioned briefly

334
00:23:33,000 --> 00:23:37,000
before. And these ribosomes are the
factories where proteins are made.

335
00:23:37,000 --> 00:23:41,000
Again, we're going to
talk a lot about them. And,

336
00:23:41,000 --> 00:23:45,000
finally, several other aspects,
the cytoskeleton. The physical

337
00:23:45,000 --> 00:23:49,000
integrity, the architecture of
the cell is maintained by a complex

338
00:23:49,000 --> 00:23:53,000
network of proteins which
together are considered to be the

339
00:23:53,000 --> 00:23:57,000
cytoskeleton. And they enable
the cell to have some rigidity,

340
00:23:57,000 --> 00:24:01,000
to resist tensile forces,
and actually to move.

341
00:24:01,000 --> 00:24:04,000
Cells can actually move
from one place to the other.

342
00:24:04,000 --> 00:24:07,000
They have motile properties.
They're able to move from one

343
00:24:07,000 --> 00:24:11,000
location to another. The
process of cell motility,

344
00:24:11,000 --> 00:24:21,000
if that's a word
you'd like to learn.

345
00:24:21,000 --> 00:24:23,000
Here is what a prokaryotic
cell looks like by contrast.

346
00:24:23,000 --> 00:24:26,000
And I just want to give
you a feeling. First of all,

347
00:24:26,000 --> 00:24:28,000
it looks roughly like
a mitochondrion that I

348
00:24:28,000 --> 00:24:32,000
discussed before. But
you see that there is the

349
00:24:32,000 --> 00:24:36,000
absence of a nuclear membrane.
There's the absence of the highly

350
00:24:36,000 --> 00:24:41,000
complex cytoarchitecture.
Cyto always refers to cells.

351
00:24:41,000 --> 00:24:45,000
There's the absence of the complex
cytoarchitecture that one associates

352
00:24:45,000 --> 00:24:50,000
with eukaryotic cells. In
fact, all that a bacterium has

353
00:24:50,000 --> 00:24:54,000
is this area in the middle.
It's called the nucleoid, a term

354
00:24:54,000 --> 00:24:59,000
which you also will probably
never hear in your lifetime.

355
00:24:59,000 --> 00:25:02,000
And it represents simply an
aggregate of the DNA of the

356
00:25:02,000 --> 00:25:06,000
chromosomes of the bacterium.
And, in most bacteria, the DNA

357
00:25:06,000 --> 00:25:10,000
consists of only a single molecule
of DNA which is responsible for

358
00:25:10,000 --> 00:25:14,000
carrying the genetic information
of the bacteria. There's no membrane

359
00:25:14,000 --> 00:25:18,000
around this nucleoid. And
outside of this area where the

360
00:25:18,000 --> 00:25:22,000
DNA is kept are largely ribosomes
which are important for protein

361
00:25:22,000 --> 00:25:26,000
synthesis. There's a membrane
on the outside of this called the

362
00:25:26,000 --> 00:25:30,000
plasma membrane, very
similar to the plasma membrane

363
00:25:30,000 --> 00:25:34,000
of eukaryotic cells. And
outside of that is a meshwork

364
00:25:34,000 --> 00:25:38,000
that's called the outer membrane,
it's sometimes called the cell wall

365
00:25:38,000 --> 00:25:42,000
of the bacterium, which
is simply there to impart

366
00:25:42,000 --> 00:25:46,000
structural rigidity to the bacterium
making sure that it doesn't explode

367
00:25:46,000 --> 00:25:50,000
and holding it together. And
then there are other versions

368
00:25:50,000 --> 00:25:54,000
of eukaryotic cells. Here's
what a plant cell looks like.

369
00:25:54,000 --> 00:25:58,000
And it's almost identical to
the cells in our body, except

370
00:25:58,000 --> 00:26:02,000
for two major
features. For one thing,

371
00:26:02,000 --> 00:26:06,000
it has chloroplasts in it which
are also, one believes now,

372
00:26:06,000 --> 00:26:10,000
the vestiges of parasitic bacteria
that invade into the cytoplasm of

373
00:26:10,000 --> 00:26:14,000
eukaryotic cells. So, in
addition to mitochondria

374
00:26:14,000 --> 00:26:18,000
which are responsible for energy
production in all eukaryotic cells,

375
00:26:18,000 --> 00:26:22,000
we have here the chloroplasts which
are responsible for harvesting light

376
00:26:22,000 --> 00:26:26,000
and converting it into energy
in plant cells. The rest of the

377
00:26:26,000 --> 00:26:30,000
cytoplasm of a plant cell
looks pretty much the same.

378
00:26:30,000 --> 00:26:34,000
One feature that I didn't really
mention when I talked about an

379
00:26:34,000 --> 00:26:38,000
animal cell is in the middle of
the nucleus, here you can see,

380
00:26:38,000 --> 00:26:42,000
is a structure called a nucleolus.
And a nucleolus, or the nucleolus

381
00:26:42,000 --> 00:26:46,000
in the eukaryotic cell is
responsible for making the large

382
00:26:46,000 --> 00:26:50,000
number of ribosomes which are
exported from the nucleus into the

383
00:26:50,000 --> 00:26:54,000
cytoplasm. And, as I
mentioned just before,

384
00:26:54,000 --> 00:26:59,000
the ribosomes are responsible
for protein synthesis.

385
00:26:59,000 --> 00:27:03,000
It turns out this is a major
synthetic effort on the part of most

386
00:27:03,000 --> 00:27:07,000
cells. Cells, like our
own, have between 5 and 10

387
00:27:07,000 --> 00:27:11,000
million ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
So it's an enormous amount of

388
00:27:11,000 --> 00:27:15,000
biomass in the cytoplasm whose sole
function is to synthesize proteins.

389
00:27:15,000 --> 00:27:19,000
As we will learn also, proteins
that are synthesized by the

390
00:27:19,000 --> 00:27:23,000
ribosomes don't sit around forever.
Some proteins have long lives.

391
00:27:23,000 --> 00:27:27,000
Some proteins have lifetimes of
15 minutes before they're degraded,

392
00:27:27,000 --> 00:27:32,000
before they're turned over. One
other distinction between our

393
00:27:32,000 --> 00:27:36,000
cells, that is the cells
of metazoa and metaphyta,

394
00:27:36,000 --> 00:27:40,000
are the cell walls,
analogous to the cell walls of

395
00:27:40,000 --> 00:27:44,000
bacteria, this green thing on
the outside. As I said before,

396
00:27:44,000 --> 00:27:48,000
we do not have cell walls
around our cells. And we will,

397
00:27:48,000 --> 00:27:52,000
as the semester goes on, go
into more and more details about

398
00:27:52,000 --> 00:27:56,000
different aspects of this
cytoarchitecture during the first

399
00:27:56,000 --> 00:27:59,000
half of the semester.
Here, for example,

400
00:27:59,000 --> 00:28:03,000
is an artist's depiction of
the endoplasmic reticulum.

401
00:28:03,000 --> 00:28:07,000
Why it has such a complex name,
I cannot tell you, but it does.

402
00:28:07,000 --> 00:28:11,000
It's called the ER in the
patois of the street. The ER.

403
00:28:11,000 --> 00:28:14,000
And the endoplasmic reticulum
is a series of membranes.

404
00:28:14,000 --> 00:28:18,000
Keep in mind, not the only membrane
in the cell is the plasma membrane.

405
00:28:18,000 --> 00:28:22,000
Within the cytoplasm there are
literally hundreds of membranes

406
00:28:22,000 --> 00:28:26,000
which are folded up
in different ways.

407
00:28:26,000 --> 00:28:30,000
Here you see them depicted.
And one set of these membranes,

408
00:28:30,000 --> 00:28:34,000
often they're organized much like
tubes, represents the membranes of

409
00:28:34,000 --> 00:28:38,000
the endoplasmic reticulum which
either lacks ribosomes attached to

410
00:28:38,000 --> 00:28:43,000
it or has these ribosomes attached
to it which cause this to be called

411
00:28:43,000 --> 00:28:47,000
the rough endoplasmic reticulum to
refer to its rough structure which

412
00:28:47,000 --> 00:28:52,000
is created by the studding
of ribosomes on the surface.

413
00:28:52,000 --> 00:28:55,000
As we will learn, just
trying to give you a feeling

414
00:28:55,000 --> 00:28:59,000
for the geography of what we're
going to talk about this semester,

415
00:28:59,000 --> 00:29:03,000
these ribosomes on the surface
of the endoplasmic reticulum are

416
00:29:03,000 --> 00:29:07,000
dedicated to the task of making
highly specialized proteins which

417
00:29:07,000 --> 00:29:11,000
are either going to be dispatched
to the surface of the cell where they

418
00:29:11,000 --> 00:29:15,000
will be displayed on the cell's
surface or actually secreted into

419
00:29:15,000 --> 00:29:19,000
the extracellular space.
Many of the proteins that are

420
00:29:19,000 --> 00:29:23,000
destined for our body are not kept
within cells but are released into

421
00:29:23,000 --> 00:29:27,000
the extracellular space where
they serve important functions,

422
00:29:27,000 --> 00:29:31,000
and so we're going to
focus very much on them.

423
00:29:31,000 --> 00:29:35,000
Here's actually what some of these
things look like in the electron

424
00:29:35,000 --> 00:29:39,000
microscope to see whether we can
either believe or fully discredit

425
00:29:39,000 --> 00:29:43,000
the imaginations of the artists.
Here's the rough endoplasmic

426
00:29:43,000 --> 00:29:48,000
reticulum I showed you in schematic
form before. And you can see why

427
00:29:48,000 --> 00:29:52,000
it's called rough. All these
black dots are ribosomes

428
00:29:52,000 --> 00:29:56,000
attached on the outside.
Here's the Golgi apparatus.

429
00:29:56,000 --> 00:30:00,000
You see these vesicles
indicated here. And a vesicle,

430
00:30:00,000 --> 00:30:05,000
just to use a new word,
is simply a membranous bag.

431
00:30:05,000 --> 00:30:08,000
And keep in mind, by the
way, that we're not going to

432
00:30:08,000 --> 00:30:12,000
spend the semester with these
highly descriptive discussions.

433
00:30:12,000 --> 00:30:16,000
Our intent today is to get a lot of
these descriptive discussions out of

434
00:30:16,000 --> 00:30:19,000
the way so that we can begin to talk
in a common parlance about many of

435
00:30:19,000 --> 00:30:23,000
the parts, the molecular
parts of cells and organisms.

436
00:30:23,000 --> 00:30:27,000
Here is the mitochondrion
which we saw depicted before.

437
00:30:27,000 --> 00:30:31,000
It looks similar to, but
not identical to the artist's

438
00:30:31,000 --> 00:30:34,000
description of that.
And keep in mind that the

439
00:30:34,000 --> 00:30:38,000
mitochondrion in our cells,
as I said before, are the

440
00:30:38,000 --> 00:30:42,000
descendents of parasitic bacteria.
Here's the endoplasmic reticulum,

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00:30:42,000 --> 00:30:46,000
and the way it would look, as
it does in certain parts of the

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00:30:46,000 --> 00:30:49,000
cell when it doesn't have all
of these ribosomes studded on the

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00:30:49,000 --> 00:30:53,000
surface. The endoplasmic reticulum
here is involved in making membranes.

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00:30:53,000 --> 00:30:57,000
The endoplasmic reticulum here is
involved in the synthesis and export

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00:30:57,000 --> 00:31:01,000
of proteins to the cell's
surface and for secretion, as

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00:31:01,000 --> 00:31:05,000
I mentioned before. Much
of what we're going to talk

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00:31:05,000 --> 00:31:09,000
about over the next days is going
to be focused on the nucleus of the

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00:31:09,000 --> 00:31:14,000
cell, that is on the chromosomes on
the cell and on the material which

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00:31:14,000 --> 00:31:19,000
is called chromatin which
carries the genetic material.

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00:31:19,000 --> 00:31:23,000
So the term chromatin is used
in biology to refer simply to the

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00:31:23,000 --> 00:31:28,000
mixture of DNA and proteins,
which together constitutes the

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00:31:28,000 --> 00:31:33,000
chromosomes. So chromatin
has within it DNA,

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00:31:33,000 --> 00:31:37,000
it has protein, and it has
a little bit of RNA in it.

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00:31:37,000 --> 00:31:42,000
And we're going to focus mostly
on the DNA in the chromatin,

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00:31:42,000 --> 00:31:46,000
because if we can begin to
understand the way the DNA works and

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00:31:46,000 --> 00:31:51,000
functions many other
aspects will flow from that.

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00:31:51,000 --> 00:31:55,000
I mentioned the cell's surface,
and I just want to impress on you

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00:31:55,000 --> 00:32:00,000
the fact that the plasma membrane of
a cell is much more complicated than

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00:32:00,000 --> 00:32:05,000
was depicted in these drawings
that I showed you just before.

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00:32:05,000 --> 00:32:08,000
If we had a way of visualizing
the plasma membrane of a cell,

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00:32:08,000 --> 00:32:12,000
we would discover that it's formed
from lipids. We see such lipids

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00:32:12,000 --> 00:32:16,000
there, phospholipids, many
of them. We'll talk about them

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00:32:16,000 --> 00:32:20,000
shortly. That the outside of the
cell, there are many proteins,

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00:32:20,000 --> 00:32:24,000
you see them here, which thread
their way through the plasma

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00:32:24,000 --> 00:32:28,000
membrane, have an extracellular
and intracellular part.

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00:32:28,000 --> 00:32:32,000
And these transmembrane proteins,
which reach from outside to inside,

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00:32:32,000 --> 00:32:36,000
represent a very important
way by which the cell senses

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00:32:36,000 --> 00:32:39,000
its environment.
This plasma membrane,

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00:32:39,000 --> 00:32:43,000
as we'll return to, represents a
very effective barrier to segregate

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00:32:43,000 --> 00:32:47,000
what's inside the cell from what's
outside of the cell to increase

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00:32:47,000 --> 00:32:51,000
concentrations of certain
biochemical entities.

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00:32:51,000 --> 00:32:54,000
But at the same time it creates
a barrier to communication.

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00:32:54,000 --> 00:32:58,000
And one of the things that cells
have had to solve over the last 700

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00:32:58,000 --> 00:33:02,000
to 800 million years is ways by
which the exterior of the cell is

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00:33:02,000 --> 00:33:06,000
able to send certain signals and
transmit that information to the

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00:33:06,000 --> 00:33:09,000
interior of the cell.
At the same time,

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00:33:09,000 --> 00:33:12,000
cells have had to use a number
of different, invent a number of

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00:33:12,000 --> 00:33:16,000
different proteins, some
of them indicated here,

479
00:33:16,000 --> 00:33:19,000
which are able to transport
materials from the outside of the

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00:33:19,000 --> 00:33:22,000
cell into the cell, or visa
versa. So the existence of

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00:33:22,000 --> 00:33:25,000
the plasma membrane represents a
boon to the cell in the sense that

482
00:33:25,000 --> 00:33:29,000
it's able to segregate what's on the
inside from what's on the outside.

483
00:33:29,000 --> 00:33:33,000
But it represents an impediment to
communication which had to be solved,

484
00:33:33,000 --> 00:33:37,000
as well as an impediment to
transport. And many of these

485
00:33:37,000 --> 00:33:42,000
transmembrane proteins are dedicated
to solving those particular problems.

486
00:33:42,000 --> 00:33:46,000
Here you see, once again
an artist's depiction

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00:33:46,000 --> 00:33:51,000
form, aspects of the cytoskeleton
of the cell. And when we talk about

488
00:33:51,000 --> 00:33:55,000
the cytoskeleton we talk about
this network of proteins which,

489
00:33:55,000 --> 00:34:00,000
as I said before,
gives the cell rigidity.

490
00:34:00,000 --> 00:34:04,000
Keep in mind that the prefix cyto
or the suffix cyt refers always to

491
00:34:04,000 --> 00:34:08,000
cells. Allows the cell to have
shape. And here you can see this

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00:34:08,000 --> 00:34:12,000
network as depicted in one way,
but here it's depicted actually much

493
00:34:12,000 --> 00:34:17,000
more dramatically. And
here you begin to see the

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00:34:17,000 --> 00:34:21,000
complexity of what exists inside
the cell. Here are these proteins.

495
00:34:21,000 --> 00:34:25,000
These are polymers of proteins
called vimentin which are present in

496
00:34:25,000 --> 00:34:29,000
very many mesenchymal cells.
Here are microtubules made from

497
00:34:29,000 --> 00:34:33,000
another kind of protein.
Here are microfilaments,

498
00:34:33,000 --> 00:34:37,000
in this case made of the molecule
actin. And if we looked at

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00:34:37,000 --> 00:34:41,000
individual molecules of
actin they would be invisible.

500
00:34:41,000 --> 00:34:45,000
This is end-to-end polymerization
of many actin molecules.

501
00:34:45,000 --> 00:34:49,000
And we're looking here under the
microscope from one end of the cell

502
00:34:49,000 --> 00:34:53,000
to the other end of the cell. And
you can see how these molecules,

503
00:34:53,000 --> 00:34:57,000
they create stiffness, and
they also enable the cell to

504
00:34:57,000 --> 00:35:00,000
contract and to move. Some
people might think that the

505
00:35:00,000 --> 00:35:04,000
interior of the cell is just water
with some molecules floating around

506
00:35:04,000 --> 00:35:08,000
them. But if you actually look
at what's present in the cell,

507
00:35:08,000 --> 00:35:12,000
more than 50% of the volume
is taken up by proteins.

508
00:35:12,000 --> 00:35:16,000
It's not simply an aqueous solvent
where everything moves around freely.

509
00:35:16,000 --> 00:35:20,000
It's a very viscous slush, a
mush. And it's quite difficult

510
00:35:20,000 --> 00:35:24,000
there for many cells to move
around from one part of the

511
00:35:24,000 --> 00:35:27,000
cell to the other. Here you
begin to get a feeling now

512
00:35:27,000 --> 00:35:31,000
for how the connection, which
we'll reinforce shortly in

513
00:35:31,000 --> 00:35:35,000
great detail, between individual
molecules and the cytoskeleton.

514
00:35:35,000 --> 00:35:38,000
And here you see these actin fibers.
I showed them to you just moments

515
00:35:38,000 --> 00:35:42,000
ago stretching from one end
of the cell to the other.

516
00:35:42,000 --> 00:35:46,000
And each of these little globules
is a single actin monomer which

517
00:35:46,000 --> 00:35:50,000
polymerize end-to-end and then form
multi-strand aggregates to create

518
00:35:50,000 --> 00:35:54,000
the actin cytoskeleton. Here's
an intermediate filament and

519
00:35:54,000 --> 00:35:58,000
here's the microtubules that are
formed, once again giving us this

520
00:35:58,000 --> 00:36:03,000
impression that the cell is actually
highly organized and that that high

521
00:36:03,000 --> 00:36:07,000
degree of organization is able to
give it some physical structure and

522
00:36:07,000 --> 00:36:12,000
shape and form. I think
we're going to end today

523
00:36:12,000 --> 00:36:17,000
two minutes early. You
probably won't object.