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PROFESSOR: What stresses you?

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You don't have to divulge
something deeply personal, but

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in a general way stresses
people?

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AUDIENCE: Lack of sleep

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PROFESSOR: Yeah,
lack of sleep's

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a pretty good stressor.

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AUDIENCE: Exams.

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PROFESSOR: Exams and
stuff like that,

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grades stuff like that.

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What else?

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So let's make up some things.

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Exams and grades if you're
student, right?

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Deadlines of any kind throughout
your life will

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stress you.

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Traffic when you're trying to
get to the airport to make

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that flight, or trying to get
to your job interview and

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traffic is twice as bad
as you thought.

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Somebody in front of you
seem to be driving

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exceptionally slowly.

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Sometimes family relationships,
I think even in

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happy families, there's points
of stress in terms of a how

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different views are
dealt with.

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Maybe if you're a college
student, what the rest of your

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life will be like, where it's
not four years all set out in

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front of you approximately,
right?

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But what the rest of your life
will be about and mean that

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can be a stress if people talk
too much it to you about that.

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What does not stress you
compared to what we might

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imagine throughout evolution
was stressful for

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mammals like us?

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You're mostly not worrying about
being eaten or eating

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00:01:53,770 --> 00:01:55,500
another person for
dinner, right?

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00:01:55,500 --> 00:01:59,380
OK that's not an everyday stress
for you, but that's an

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everyday stress for mammals
who're trying to survive

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because they're the food of
another group, right?

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00:02:05,770 --> 00:02:08,750
And trying to get their
own food to live.

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00:02:08,750 --> 00:02:13,250
So the kinds of stressors we now
have in an industrialized

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economy or post-industrial
economy is incredibly

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different than the stressors
that occurred

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for most of our evolution.

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And I'm going to take a lot of
these points from a wonderful

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book from a wonderful researcher
and writer, Robert

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Sapolsky, Why Zebras
Don't Get Ulcers.

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He asks in that sense what
stresses a zebra?

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They're not worried about exams
and deadlines and MCATS

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and things like this, right?

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OK what are the forms of
stress that they face.

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And they're things like serious
physical injury,

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predators and starvation, very
fundamental things about

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living and surviving.

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Not careers, jobs, timetables,
the kind of world we mostly

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live in, unless we have
a health threat.

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And so what stress is, is
the psychological and

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physiological response to a
stimulus, a stressor, that

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alters the body's equilibrium.

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And when we talk about stress we
can talk about two forms of

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it-- acute, what's
instantaneous; and chronic

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what's consistent and goes on.

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So acute, physical stress would
be an injury, chronic

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things are hunger or cancer,
long term problems.

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An acute psychological stress
would be a deadline, a chronic

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one would be chronic work
pressure if you have it

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throughout the semester.

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An acute stressor socially is
humiliation, a chronic one

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might be isolation.

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And we'll come back a little
bit actually to social

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rejection as a stressor
later on.

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So, Sapolsky's idea is this,
that for animals in the

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wilderness, and for us maybe for
a long time in evolution,

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stress is typically acute,
physical, and responsive.

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Something happens, it's about
your bodily survival,

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and then you act.

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For people in the world we live
in, in this room, stress

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is often chronic,
psychosocial--

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it's not a physical threat
mostly that's happening to

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you, it's something about your
sense of yourself in the

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world, how you relate
to people, how you

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relate to your goals--

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and it's anticipatory--

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we talked about it for
pleasure also, the

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anticipation of reward turns on
your dopamine system once

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you know what the reward will
be, not the reward itself.

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But when it comes to fearful
things, we also know that we

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can have dread.

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We dread upcoming things for
quite some time before they

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even get here if we think
they're going to be pretty

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unpleasant.

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And there's a neat study from
Greg Berns about the

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neurobiology of dread
in people.

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So it's an fMRI study, and in
a way that was approved by

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human subjects.

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They were waiting for a
cutaneous electrical

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shock to the foot.

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So it's a shock that's enough
to be unpleasant but not

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enough to be dangerous.

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And people signed up voluntarily
to do it, and at

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each trial you sit
in the scanner.

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You're told what's the voltage
level is going to be, compared

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to the most unpleasant they use
in that experiment, and

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how long until it comes.

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So the voltage is how painful
it's going to be, the duration

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of time, and something about how
long dread can develop in

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00:05:25,900 --> 00:05:28,830
anticipation of a painful
stimulus.

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And at first you just got the
got the warning, and here

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comes the pain.

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After a while, you get a
choice and this is the

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interesting thing.

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Would you rather get, for
example you could think about

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this, 90% voltage, that is,
9/10 as bad as the whole

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experiment ever has it,
in three seconds--

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so something pretty painful,
pretty fast--

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or would you rather have 60%
voltage in 27 seconds.

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So you can decide for yourself,
which would you

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rather have?

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And you can see the

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trading-off in people's choices--

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the actual physical pain, which
is greater than 90%

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versus the period of dread, the
anticipation of something

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miserable coming up in the case
where it's less pain but

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a longer run up.

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And what they found is that
people varied in interesting

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ways, and they find
some [INAUDIBLE]

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of this, but they found that
what they call the extreme

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dreaders, that they would prefer
more voltage now than

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to wait for any shock
later on.

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Like, get it over with now, it's
more painful for me to

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sit there and wait for something
even though there's

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no painful stimulus than to
just get it over with now.

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And maybe we all know the relief
that when we anticipate

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something bad, having it happen
sometimes is almost a

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relief to be past all that
miserable dread.

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So, where in the brain does
some of this occur?

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So, one area that we'll come
back to-- a couple different

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areas-- one area I want to focus
on is this middle of the

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brain, this area called
the cingulate.

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00:06:50,380 --> 00:06:54,100
And here, regardless of time and
in all subjects, the more

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00:06:54,100 --> 00:06:56,850
voltage you got, the bigger
the brain response.

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OK, that's not very surprising,
it's in a part of

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the brain-- we'll come to this
a little bit later-- that's

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involved in the interpretation
of pain.

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More voltage you get, it's easy
to interpret it as worse.

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And then you say, what's the
difference in the people who

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are the extreme dreaders, the
people who would say no matter

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how bad the pain, I would rather
have it now than wait

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00:07:15,430 --> 00:07:18,470
for a lesser pain for
a few more seconds.

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00:07:18,470 --> 00:07:21,080
Give me the worst now, I have
to get it over with.

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00:07:21,080 --> 00:07:24,290
And what they found in the
brains of those individuals,

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shown in red in this figure, is
that even before anything

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was coming on in the same brain
areas that responded to

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the pain, there was a rise in
activation as if the pain was

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already happening.

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The same areas that are involved
in responding to the

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pain, especially in the people
who dreaded it the most, who

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would take more pain now to
avoid the wait, those parts of

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the brain are already showing
a pain-like response before

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anything has arrived,
a physical

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manifestation of dread.

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So let's go back to mortality
for a moment.

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So, in 1900, think about this,
what were the major causes of

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death in the United States?

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00:08:04,670 --> 00:08:07,680
And they were mostly from
infectious disease and

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00:08:07,680 --> 00:08:08,320
childbirth.

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00:08:08,320 --> 00:08:11,800
Childbirth was extremely
dangerous in 1900.

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00:08:11,800 --> 00:08:15,100
So the most common causes
of death were pneumonia,

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00:08:15,100 --> 00:08:16,600
tuberculosis,--

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if you know about this it won't
surprise you, but if you

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00:08:18,940 --> 00:08:20,720
haven't studied this in
history recently--

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00:08:20,720 --> 00:08:25,740
influenza, flu, in 1918 it
killed more Americans than

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00:08:25,740 --> 00:08:29,520
World War I, which was high at
that year it was killing many,

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many people, and childbirth
and especially of course,

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00:08:32,059 --> 00:08:33,860
that's going to be
in young women.

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How about a few years ago in
2007, which is roughly now,

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how many people are dying
of these things?

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Not so many in the United
States, they're dying of

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diseases that are conceptualized
as cumulative

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damage diseases, not an
infection but things like

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heart disease, where over many
years a combination of

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lifestyle and stress might
harm your heart function,

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00:08:57,080 --> 00:09:01,420
might promote the growth of
cancer, might promote a stroke

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00:09:01,420 --> 00:09:04,500
or cerebral-vascular disorders
including stroke.

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00:09:04,500 --> 00:09:08,140
And many of these diseases are
viewed as a combination of

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00:09:08,140 --> 00:09:11,920
long-term lifestyle things,
maybe exposure to toxins in

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00:09:11,920 --> 00:09:14,180
the environment, and some
mixtures of those.

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Not a one-time, one-shot
infection or child delivery,

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00:09:19,780 --> 00:09:22,170
but long slow processes
that finally

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culminate in mortality.

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So, many of our current ideas
about stress come from a

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00:09:28,310 --> 00:09:32,570
researcher named Hans Selye And
in the 1930's, it turns

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out, he's one of the main people
thinking about stress

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as an important thing in our
life, but he was infamously

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00:09:37,670 --> 00:09:41,130
not good for his handling of
rats in the laboratory.

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Now have any of you
handled rats in a

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laboratory by your hands?

201
00:09:46,160 --> 00:09:48,010
I see one hand going up
there, any others?

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00:09:48,010 --> 00:09:51,850
OK, how easy is it
to handle them ?

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00:09:51,850 --> 00:09:54,120
When you pick them up and do
stuff, are they like thank you

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00:09:54,120 --> 00:09:57,480
very much, I knew it was time
for injection or time for

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00:09:57,480 --> 00:09:59,860
feeding or whatever
you do with them?

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00:09:59,860 --> 00:10:00,540
No?

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00:10:00,540 --> 00:10:02,820
Are they kind of squirreling
around a lot and wiggling and

208
00:10:02,820 --> 00:10:05,820
not very happy when you pick
them up, on the whole?

209
00:10:05,820 --> 00:10:08,260
About as happy as we would be
if a giant picked us up and

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00:10:08,260 --> 00:10:12,040
shook us, and injected us with
the stuff for the day?

211
00:10:12,040 --> 00:10:17,870
I was only involved in one rat
experiment ever and I can't

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00:10:17,870 --> 00:10:19,870
claim to be a great success like
Selye , but I can claim

213
00:10:19,870 --> 00:10:21,520
to be as bad as he was
with handling rats.

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00:10:21,520 --> 00:10:23,790
Because it was kind of scary,
they were really mean and want

215
00:10:23,790 --> 00:10:24,340
to get out of your hand.

216
00:10:24,340 --> 00:10:25,590
Of course, from their
perspective they're just

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00:10:25,590 --> 00:10:27,960
trying to live the life they
were meant to lead and you're

218
00:10:27,960 --> 00:10:29,700
fighting with them and you're
forcing them into this thing

219
00:10:29,700 --> 00:10:30,870
that thing to get injected, and

220
00:10:30,870 --> 00:10:33,930
they're squirreling around.

221
00:10:33,930 --> 00:10:35,650
So, he was doing an experiment
where they had extracted

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00:10:35,650 --> 00:10:37,340
ovarian chemical, and they were
trying to figure out what

223
00:10:37,340 --> 00:10:38,210
it does at the time.

224
00:10:38,210 --> 00:10:40,460
He injected the rats daily.

225
00:10:40,460 --> 00:10:43,620
And he was pretty bad, by his
own admission, he would drop

226
00:10:43,620 --> 00:10:46,360
them on the floor and they would
scurry behind tables.

227
00:10:46,360 --> 00:10:48,880
He would hunt them down
and drag them out.

228
00:10:48,880 --> 00:10:50,970
And he would do this day in,
day out for months because

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00:10:50,970 --> 00:10:53,540
they were on a daily
experimental schedule.

230
00:10:53,540 --> 00:10:56,490
And what he found, after
months of this sort of

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00:10:56,490 --> 00:10:59,960
inadvertent nonstop stressing of
the rats, because of course

232
00:10:59,960 --> 00:11:02,300
the better thing to do if you're
skilled is to just pick

233
00:11:02,300 --> 00:11:03,660
them up with authority,
inject them, and

234
00:11:03,660 --> 00:11:05,710
put them back, right?

235
00:11:05,710 --> 00:11:09,030
All the fighting and stuff from
the poor handling is not

236
00:11:09,030 --> 00:11:10,680
making them any happier.

237
00:11:10,680 --> 00:11:14,210
What he found in them is peptic
ulcers, ulcers in their

238
00:11:14,210 --> 00:11:18,930
eating system, enlarged adrenal
glands, shrunken

239
00:11:18,930 --> 00:11:21,920
immune tissue, but it wasn't
about the ovarian chemical, it

240
00:11:21,920 --> 00:11:23,260
was also in his control rats.

241
00:11:23,260 --> 00:11:26,330
Basically he was giving all
of them stress-induced

242
00:11:26,330 --> 00:11:28,760
physiological changes.

243
00:11:28,760 --> 00:11:31,640
And what he was impressed by,
and many other people too, is

244
00:11:31,640 --> 00:11:35,410
that you can expose rats to a
whole huge range of stressors,

245
00:11:35,410 --> 00:11:38,330
different things you do in their
environment, and they

246
00:11:38,330 --> 00:11:42,260
all seem to converge on these
ulcers, these enlarged adrenal

247
00:11:42,260 --> 00:11:44,340
glands, and shrunken
immune tissue.

248
00:11:44,340 --> 00:11:46,190
A lot of different things that
can stress you seem to

249
00:11:46,190 --> 00:11:49,330
converge upon a common
biological pathway and

250
00:11:49,330 --> 00:11:51,320
consequences for the animal.

251
00:11:51,320 --> 00:11:54,340
So stress response is similar in
a broad array of stressors,

252
00:11:54,340 --> 00:11:57,620
and if they go on for too long,
people get sick, the

253
00:11:57,620 --> 00:11:59,360
chronic stress.

254
00:11:59,360 --> 00:12:02,780
So, you remember from your
introductory biology courses

255
00:12:02,780 --> 00:12:05,600
and so on, that when we talk
about the autonomic nervous

256
00:12:05,600 --> 00:12:07,780
system in people, there's
a sympathetic and

257
00:12:07,780 --> 00:12:09,890
parasympathetic branch.

258
00:12:09,890 --> 00:12:13,060
The sympathetic goes from the
brain to the spine to organs

259
00:12:13,060 --> 00:12:15,940
to blood vessels to sweat glands
to muscles and hairs,

260
00:12:15,940 --> 00:12:17,580
that's why you get goosebumps
when you're scared.

261
00:12:17,580 --> 00:12:20,450
That's the nerves innervating,
that's when your

262
00:12:20,450 --> 00:12:22,030
hair stands on end.

263
00:12:22,030 --> 00:12:24,610
It turns on for emergency
situations, arousal,

264
00:12:24,610 --> 00:12:25,800
activation--

265
00:12:25,800 --> 00:12:28,730
the famous joke that it's
related to the four F's,

266
00:12:28,730 --> 00:12:32,280
flight fright, and sex.

267
00:12:32,280 --> 00:12:33,760
I was so afraid I'd mess
it up, I couldn't

268
00:12:33,760 --> 00:12:35,440
read the four word--

269
00:12:35,440 --> 00:12:37,550
flight, fright fight, and sex.

270
00:12:37,550 --> 00:12:39,880
And it releases epinephrine
and norepinephrine.

271
00:12:39,880 --> 00:12:40,800
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
is the same thing as

272
00:12:40,800 --> 00:12:42,810
adrenaline and noradrenaline,
one's English-American, and

273
00:12:42,810 --> 00:12:45,580
one's American-American,
same thing.

274
00:12:45,580 --> 00:12:49,760
The parasympathetic is your
zen, couch-potato system.

275
00:12:49,760 --> 00:12:53,285
It operates highly when you're
asleep or you're eating or

276
00:12:53,285 --> 00:12:55,650
you're relaxing.

277
00:12:55,650 --> 00:12:57,560
And so you can talk about
different organs and how

278
00:12:57,560 --> 00:13:00,790
they're responding to the two
kinds of systems when one is

279
00:13:00,790 --> 00:13:03,870
up and one is down they're in
mutual opposition or balance.

280
00:13:03,870 --> 00:13:06,240
So in the heart, when you're
sympathetic, when you have to

281
00:13:06,240 --> 00:13:09,170
activate a run from being
attacked and your heart rate

282
00:13:09,170 --> 00:13:11,515
speeds up, your parasympathetic
system will

283
00:13:11,515 --> 00:13:12,840
turn it down.

284
00:13:12,840 --> 00:13:15,460
For the blood it's seceded to
muscles, and when you're in

285
00:13:15,460 --> 00:13:18,110
sympathetic action and when
you're in parasympathetic

286
00:13:18,110 --> 00:13:20,800
relaxation it's drawn from the
muscles to other organs.

287
00:13:23,480 --> 00:13:26,360
Part of that response too is
the hypothalamus, which

288
00:13:26,360 --> 00:13:28,740
releases corticotropin releasing
hormone to the

289
00:13:28,740 --> 00:13:30,310
anterior pituitary.

290
00:13:30,310 --> 00:13:34,140
In about 15 seconds that
releases ACTH into the blood,

291
00:13:34,140 --> 00:13:36,540
that reaches the kidney and
a few minutes later that

292
00:13:36,540 --> 00:13:39,770
produces glucocorticoids, or
steroids, or cortisol, that's

293
00:13:39,770 --> 00:13:42,980
often used as a marker for
stress response, a brain to

294
00:13:42,980 --> 00:13:48,940
hypothalamus to pituitary
to kidney circuit.

295
00:13:48,940 --> 00:13:53,190
And then we can talk about how
what can be adaptive response

296
00:13:53,190 --> 00:13:56,900
in an acute emergency can become
maladaptive if it's

297
00:13:56,900 --> 00:13:59,760
chronic and happens over
and over again.

298
00:13:59,760 --> 00:14:03,180
So mobilization of energy good
when you're escaping danger,

299
00:14:03,180 --> 00:14:05,600
but if you have it all the time
maybe it leads to muscle

300
00:14:05,600 --> 00:14:08,200
weakness, myopathy, fatigue
or diabetes.

301
00:14:08,200 --> 00:14:12,060
Increased cardiovascular tone
good for escaping danger,

302
00:14:12,060 --> 00:14:14,360
stress-induced hypertension
not good.

303
00:14:14,360 --> 00:14:19,140
Suppression of digestion, you
don't want to start to spend

304
00:14:19,140 --> 00:14:21,950
energy on digestion when you're
running for your life

305
00:14:21,950 --> 00:14:24,400
but if you suppress it too
much it's associated with

306
00:14:24,400 --> 00:14:26,170
ulceration and colitis.

307
00:14:26,170 --> 00:14:28,110
Suppression of growth-- we'll
come to that-- if you're in a

308
00:14:28,110 --> 00:14:32,740
growth period of your life,
that's metabolically expensive

309
00:14:32,740 --> 00:14:34,040
to do, growth.

310
00:14:34,040 --> 00:14:37,020
You turn off growth mechanisms
briefly when you're in

311
00:14:37,020 --> 00:14:39,490
sympathetic action.

312
00:14:39,490 --> 00:14:43,330
Reproduction is turned off or
down, too much of that may

313
00:14:43,330 --> 00:14:46,160
lead to impotency
loss of libido.

314
00:14:46,160 --> 00:14:48,070
Suppression of the immune
system, again you're turning

315
00:14:48,070 --> 00:14:51,530
down energy spent on immune
processes temporarily for

316
00:14:51,530 --> 00:14:53,910
emergency, too much of that
you could have increased

317
00:14:53,910 --> 00:14:55,180
disease risk.

318
00:14:55,180 --> 00:14:57,390
Sharpening of cognition,
you want to be as smart

319
00:14:57,390 --> 00:14:58,290
as you can be, right?

320
00:14:58,290 --> 00:15:01,580
Under danger circumstances,
having your system in high

321
00:15:01,580 --> 00:15:04,240
gear all the time can lead to
neuronal death, and I'll show

322
00:15:04,240 --> 00:15:07,040
you an example of hippocampal
shrinkage that occurs with

323
00:15:07,040 --> 00:15:09,070
stress in that way.

324
00:15:09,070 --> 00:15:13,200
So everything that can be
adaptive in one hand, can be

325
00:15:13,200 --> 00:15:17,350
related to stress-related
disorders on the other hand in

326
00:15:17,350 --> 00:15:20,290
the heart or in the arteries.

327
00:15:20,290 --> 00:15:24,350
And here's a picture
of a stomach ulcer.

328
00:15:24,350 --> 00:15:25,850
We'll come back to that because
the ulcer is one of

329
00:15:25,850 --> 00:15:28,490
the great interesting stories of
the second half of the last

330
00:15:28,490 --> 00:15:30,720
century, is the complete
re-interpretation of why

331
00:15:30,720 --> 00:15:33,260
people get ulcers.

332
00:15:33,260 --> 00:15:35,460
So, let's talk about that now.

333
00:15:35,460 --> 00:15:38,300
So, the adaptive response when
you're in an emergency is to

334
00:15:38,300 --> 00:15:39,670
suppress digestion,
that's part of

335
00:15:39,670 --> 00:15:42,120
the sympathetic response.

336
00:15:42,120 --> 00:15:45,770
And stress has long been
associated with getting ulcers

337
00:15:45,770 --> 00:15:48,330
which are holes in the
walls of your organ.

338
00:15:48,330 --> 00:15:50,930
Now, for many, many, many
years, physicians and

339
00:15:50,930 --> 00:15:54,370
scientists thought that getting
ulcers in adults was

340
00:15:54,370 --> 00:15:58,150
associated with a combination
of stress and diet.

341
00:15:58,150 --> 00:16:00,670
And people who had ulcers were
told try to have less stress

342
00:16:00,670 --> 00:16:03,970
in your life and eat
more bland food.

343
00:16:03,970 --> 00:16:06,430
And then Robert Warren and Barry
Marshall won the Nobel

344
00:16:06,430 --> 00:16:07,670
Prize in 2005.

345
00:16:07,670 --> 00:16:10,320
But this is one of those stories
in science where

346
00:16:10,320 --> 00:16:15,160
everybody literally ridiculed
these people in conferences

347
00:16:15,160 --> 00:16:18,560
and papers they were literally
ridiculed by the entire

348
00:16:18,560 --> 00:16:21,890
orthodox scientific field,
because they put forth the

349
00:16:21,890 --> 00:16:23,950
idea, which had been around a
little bit but they really

350
00:16:23,950 --> 00:16:28,340
pushed it, that this was due not
to the combination of diet

351
00:16:28,340 --> 00:16:32,870
and stress but it was due to an
actual specific bacterium.

352
00:16:32,870 --> 00:16:34,440
And people thought that's
ridiculous because our

353
00:16:34,440 --> 00:16:37,810
stomachs are so acidic that no
bacterium would survive in the

354
00:16:37,810 --> 00:16:40,560
acidic environment of our
stomachs long enough to do any

355
00:16:40,560 --> 00:16:43,510
harm in this sort
of chronic way.

356
00:16:43,510 --> 00:16:46,300
And part of the way, as they
struggled to get data, they

357
00:16:46,300 --> 00:16:49,990
did these kind of funny
experiments where Marshall

358
00:16:49,990 --> 00:16:52,510
went and took the bacterium they
suspected and actually

359
00:16:52,510 --> 00:16:55,510
swallowed it to see what
would happen, OK?

360
00:16:55,510 --> 00:16:58,720
This kind of weird, heroic
self medical experiment.

361
00:16:58,720 --> 00:17:01,810
And he thought, like in 10 years
I'll see if I have an

362
00:17:01,810 --> 00:17:04,420
ulcer, but what happened is
within a couple of days he was

363
00:17:04,420 --> 00:17:06,869
having severe gastritis, severe
disturbance of the

364
00:17:06,869 --> 00:17:08,660
stomach, and that was
the first piece of

365
00:17:08,660 --> 00:17:11,400
evidence they could do.

366
00:17:11,400 --> 00:17:13,190
He couldn't find out if he would
have an ulcer in the

367
00:17:13,190 --> 00:17:15,839
long run because his wife made
him take medications right

368
00:17:15,839 --> 00:17:17,869
away after that.

369
00:17:17,869 --> 00:17:21,599
But still, that built up the
case that it's a bacterium

370
00:17:21,599 --> 00:17:23,300
that's swallowed that
causes the gastritis

371
00:17:23,300 --> 00:17:25,859
that leads to ulcers.

372
00:17:25,859 --> 00:17:28,210
And that if you get people
antibiotic treatments that

373
00:17:28,210 --> 00:17:31,680
will treat the bacterium,
they improve a lot.

374
00:17:31,680 --> 00:17:33,530
So, a complete re-understanding
of what

375
00:17:33,530 --> 00:17:35,720
caused the disorder and
how to treat it.

376
00:17:35,720 --> 00:17:38,640
So, some people say, well it was
never about stress, it was

377
00:17:38,640 --> 00:17:41,210
always about the bacterium,
that's it, it's a simple

378
00:17:41,210 --> 00:17:42,660
biological story.

379
00:17:42,660 --> 00:17:45,700
But there's two ways in which
probably stress is relevant.

380
00:17:45,700 --> 00:17:49,750
One of them, the milder one,
is that out 15% of cases of

381
00:17:49,750 --> 00:17:52,720
ulcer don't have any measurable
bacterium, they

382
00:17:52,720 --> 00:17:54,170
don't seem to have that, OK?

383
00:17:54,170 --> 00:17:56,020
So who knows about that 15%.

384
00:17:56,020 --> 00:17:58,340
But here's the more
amazing piece--

385
00:17:58,340 --> 00:18:00,720
many, many, many of us have
this bacterium, it's

386
00:18:00,720 --> 00:18:03,910
incredibly common widespread
bacterium.

387
00:18:03,910 --> 00:18:05,950
But only 10% of the people
who have the

388
00:18:05,950 --> 00:18:08,790
bacterium have ulcers.

389
00:18:08,790 --> 00:18:12,390
OK, so it seems like it's not
just about having the

390
00:18:12,390 --> 00:18:15,030
bacterium, but it's interaction
perhaps, between

391
00:18:15,030 --> 00:18:17,230
the bacterium and the stressors
of your environment.

392
00:18:20,570 --> 00:18:24,120
There's not many stories about
suppression of growth, but

393
00:18:24,120 --> 00:18:26,780
there's one historically
interesting one, so this is at

394
00:18:26,780 --> 00:18:29,050
the edge of science, this
is an anecdote.

395
00:18:29,050 --> 00:18:32,060
I'll show a clinical case, you
can't do many experiments

396
00:18:32,060 --> 00:18:35,800
about this, about what's called
psychogenic dwarfism,

397
00:18:35,800 --> 00:18:38,850
an inability to get to standard
height that's thought

398
00:18:38,850 --> 00:18:40,670
to be based on psychological
principles.

399
00:18:40,670 --> 00:18:44,960
So this is a story of a British
Victorian family,

400
00:18:44,960 --> 00:18:47,960
their favorite son was
killed at age 13, a

401
00:18:47,960 --> 00:18:50,040
tragic loss of a son.

402
00:18:50,040 --> 00:18:54,190
The bereaved mother takes to her
bed for years, she doesn't

403
00:18:54,190 --> 00:18:58,060
leave her room or bad, and
she ignores her surviving

404
00:18:58,060 --> 00:19:03,130
six-year-old son, constantly
idealizing the boy who passed

405
00:19:03,130 --> 00:19:08,360
away, having almost no interest
in the surviving son.

406
00:19:08,360 --> 00:19:11,000
And when he would come into the
room, bringing her food to

407
00:19:11,000 --> 00:19:14,440
her room as she lay in her bed
in severe depression, she

408
00:19:14,440 --> 00:19:16,970
would say to him David--

409
00:19:16,970 --> 00:19:18,710
that's the boy who
passed away--

410
00:19:18,710 --> 00:19:20,582
oh David is that you?

411
00:19:20,582 --> 00:19:23,670
Oh, it's only you, she would
say to the surviving son.

412
00:19:23,670 --> 00:19:27,660
So, depressed and discounting
her surviving son.

413
00:19:27,660 --> 00:19:30,050
David was always perfect,
the surviving son was an

414
00:19:30,050 --> 00:19:32,390
irritating reminder.

415
00:19:32,390 --> 00:19:35,920
He grew to only 5 feet as an
adult, and he's famous for

416
00:19:35,920 --> 00:19:37,140
writing the play Peter Pan.

417
00:19:37,140 --> 00:19:39,860
So the next time you see the
play, or see the movie, think

418
00:19:39,860 --> 00:19:44,080
about what childhood means to a
person who had this kind of

419
00:19:44,080 --> 00:19:47,310
childhood, and grew to
a very short stature.

420
00:19:47,310 --> 00:19:50,170
It was interpreted as a
psychological response to a

421
00:19:50,170 --> 00:19:52,500
long period of stress,
the lack of

422
00:19:52,500 --> 00:19:55,580
attachment from his mother.

423
00:19:55,580 --> 00:19:58,260
And here's a clinical case of
a child who went into a

424
00:19:58,260 --> 00:20:01,610
hospital, you can see this
picture of this child growing,

425
00:20:01,610 --> 00:20:05,700
he was in obviously a
non-supportive environment.

426
00:20:05,700 --> 00:20:08,670
He enters a hospital and his
growth hormone level is 5.9,

427
00:20:08,670 --> 00:20:10,830
it's very low.

428
00:20:10,830 --> 00:20:14,180
He takes to a nurse, and 100
days later it goes to 13, it

429
00:20:14,180 --> 00:20:14,850
more than doubles.

430
00:20:14,850 --> 00:20:16,750
He's gaining height
considerably.

431
00:20:16,750 --> 00:20:20,490
The nurse goes on vacation, he
goes back to his low levels of

432
00:20:20,490 --> 00:20:22,900
growth hormone and growth.

433
00:20:22,900 --> 00:20:26,380
She returns and he goes back to
typical growth of height.

434
00:20:26,380 --> 00:20:29,660
So, very psychological
relationship between his

435
00:20:29,660 --> 00:20:33,630
physical growth and his
relationship to the nurse.

436
00:20:33,630 --> 00:20:39,420
And so we understand this to be
extreme cases of emotional

437
00:20:39,420 --> 00:20:42,130
neglect or something like that
in the homes, these are not

438
00:20:42,130 --> 00:20:45,610
small spats with your parents.

439
00:20:45,610 --> 00:20:48,600
But again, a relationship
between a very chronic stress,

440
00:20:48,600 --> 00:20:53,800
an emotional one, and then
physical growth.

441
00:20:53,800 --> 00:20:58,180
Now this is a famous chair, and
the story goes like this.

442
00:20:58,180 --> 00:21:01,790
In the mid-1950's Meyer Friedman
and Ray Rosenman were

443
00:21:01,790 --> 00:21:04,100
cardiologists on the West
coast, and they had a

444
00:21:04,100 --> 00:21:05,700
cardiology practice.

445
00:21:05,700 --> 00:21:08,860
And they had a chair, and this
is the chair, that sat in

446
00:21:08,860 --> 00:21:10,140
their waiting room.

447
00:21:10,140 --> 00:21:14,950
And they had a guy who came, in
his name is lost to history

448
00:21:14,950 --> 00:21:17,390
although everybody agrees he
gets credit for beginning this

449
00:21:17,390 --> 00:21:22,300
idea, and his job was to
re-upholster the chairs.

450
00:21:22,300 --> 00:21:25,310
And he told these two
physicians, I go to a lot of

451
00:21:25,310 --> 00:21:28,530
places and I work in a lot of
offices, and nowhere do I go

452
00:21:28,530 --> 00:21:32,240
do I have to re upholster chairs
as often as I do in

453
00:21:32,240 --> 00:21:33,390
your office.

454
00:21:33,390 --> 00:21:37,040
And this triggered a thought in
these two people, because,

455
00:21:37,040 --> 00:21:40,690
don't forget that for many
physicians, understandably,

456
00:21:40,690 --> 00:21:44,700
and maybe less so now,
cardiology is like real

457
00:21:44,700 --> 00:21:47,860
biology and psychological stuff
is kind of peripheral

458
00:21:47,860 --> 00:21:50,040
and edgy, may not
really matter.

459
00:21:50,040 --> 00:21:54,590
OK so to Friedman and Rosenman's
credit they say

460
00:21:54,590 --> 00:21:55,580
what is going on?

461
00:21:55,580 --> 00:21:56,930
Why does our chairs
look like this?

462
00:21:56,930 --> 00:22:00,720
Now, sometimes you might have
that experience yourself, have

463
00:22:00,720 --> 00:22:04,150
you ever stood in line in a
way that's unbelievably

464
00:22:04,150 --> 00:22:06,290
irritating because you have
somewhere to go, and there's

465
00:22:06,290 --> 00:22:09,190
somebody really slow in front of
you or somebody working the

466
00:22:09,190 --> 00:22:10,680
line who's really slow?

467
00:22:10,680 --> 00:22:13,930
And you're going come on, I've
got like minutes to go here,

468
00:22:13,930 --> 00:22:17,740
can't I get my coffee or
my tea or whatever.

469
00:22:17,740 --> 00:22:20,590
Have you ever seen people jump
from line to line in grocery

470
00:22:20,590 --> 00:22:23,640
stores because they cannot bear,
they dread that moment

471
00:22:23,640 --> 00:22:26,160
when they get somebody who
gets into the line where

472
00:22:26,160 --> 00:22:28,320
you're supposed to have
10 and they have 12?

473
00:22:28,320 --> 00:22:29,650
Have you seen that?

474
00:22:29,650 --> 00:22:32,050
None of us think that's quite
fair play, but some of us say

475
00:22:32,050 --> 00:22:35,550
OK, wish they had 10 items,
and some people are really

476
00:22:35,550 --> 00:22:36,430
mad, right?

477
00:22:36,430 --> 00:22:39,220
OK, so that's type A personality
and we'll talk

478
00:22:39,220 --> 00:22:40,120
about that in a moment.

479
00:22:40,120 --> 00:22:42,440
And what they began to say is
the patients are sitting in

480
00:22:42,440 --> 00:22:44,580
the office, fidgeting,
fidgeting, fidgeting, where's

481
00:22:44,580 --> 00:22:44,910
the doctor?

482
00:22:44,910 --> 00:22:45,370
Where's the doctor?

483
00:22:45,370 --> 00:22:46,970
I have important things to do.

484
00:22:46,970 --> 00:22:50,140
And they're wearing down the
arms and the chair because

485
00:22:50,140 --> 00:22:53,080
they're so fidgety waiting for
that appointment to happen.

486
00:22:53,080 --> 00:22:55,730
Not just for one moment but for
a long time and they're

487
00:22:55,730 --> 00:22:57,530
literally wearing
down the chair.

488
00:22:57,530 --> 00:23:00,240
And they're showing up at a
high rate to a cardiology

489
00:23:00,240 --> 00:23:03,460
practice of people with
heart problems.

490
00:23:03,460 --> 00:23:07,510
And that's developed this idea
that a huge threat--

491
00:23:07,510 --> 00:23:10,870
and I'll qualify this
in a moment

492
00:23:10,870 --> 00:23:12,325
with subsequent studies--

493
00:23:12,325 --> 00:23:15,960
but in the 1960's, that type A
personality, you've heard that

494
00:23:15,960 --> 00:23:17,990
phrase perhaps, type A
personalities, this is where

495
00:23:17,990 --> 00:23:18,670
that began.

496
00:23:18,670 --> 00:23:20,550
It's become a widespread term.

497
00:23:20,550 --> 00:23:22,290
These are people who are
immensely competitive,

498
00:23:22,290 --> 00:23:24,610
over-achieving, time-pressured,
impatient,

499
00:23:24,610 --> 00:23:27,190
hostile, and they have
increased risk of

500
00:23:27,190 --> 00:23:28,300
cardiovascular disease.

501
00:23:28,300 --> 00:23:31,330
And in the first analyses, the
risk if you had this kind of

502
00:23:31,330 --> 00:23:33,760
personality was equal to
smoking or very high

503
00:23:33,760 --> 00:23:34,520
cholesterol.

504
00:23:34,520 --> 00:23:37,200
I mean, there's a very high
risk and that's why these

505
00:23:37,200 --> 00:23:40,420
chairs were being worn down by
the type A personalities

506
00:23:40,420 --> 00:23:44,370
showing up with cardiac problems
because they were

507
00:23:44,370 --> 00:23:49,390
stressing themselves all the
time by everyday life events.

508
00:23:49,390 --> 00:23:51,930
And this picture sort of--

509
00:23:51,930 --> 00:23:55,670
they had anecdotal things,
they had a early morning

510
00:23:55,670 --> 00:23:58,390
group, a patient support group
for type A individuals with

511
00:23:58,390 --> 00:24:01,670
cardiovascular disease to get
together and say, OK when I'm

512
00:24:01,670 --> 00:24:03,620
really stressed out, I'm
going to count to

513
00:24:03,620 --> 00:24:04,950
5 and relax, right?

514
00:24:04,950 --> 00:24:06,120
It was a support group.

515
00:24:06,120 --> 00:24:07,500
So, here is your car.

516
00:24:07,500 --> 00:24:10,120
So, now when you go park your
car sometimes, there's some

517
00:24:10,120 --> 00:24:12,830
people depending on the
situation who park forward

518
00:24:12,830 --> 00:24:14,220
into their spots.

519
00:24:14,220 --> 00:24:17,130
But if you know you have to get
away super fast and you

520
00:24:17,130 --> 00:24:19,740
don't have a minute to waste,
how do you park?

521
00:24:19,740 --> 00:24:20,940
You park backwards, right?

522
00:24:20,940 --> 00:24:23,700
So when you jump into your car
you can hit that accelerator

523
00:24:23,700 --> 00:24:25,660
and you're out in two seconds.

524
00:24:25,660 --> 00:24:28,240
So all of the type A people are
all lined up here, ready

525
00:24:28,240 --> 00:24:30,100
to race away out after
the session.

526
00:24:30,100 --> 00:24:33,650
And here's the middle of the day
mixed parking, some people

527
00:24:33,650 --> 00:24:36,090
front-end in, some people
rear-end in.

528
00:24:36,090 --> 00:24:38,760
These are anecdotal, but this is
the kind of thing they were

529
00:24:38,760 --> 00:24:41,500
noticing, that led
to these ideas.

530
00:24:41,500 --> 00:24:44,920
So it turns out, in subsequent
studies, that a lot of the

531
00:24:44,920 --> 00:24:48,770
effect wasn't as broad as they
thought, but it does apply to

532
00:24:48,770 --> 00:24:51,410
people who are relatively young
with cardiovascular

533
00:24:51,410 --> 00:24:55,450
problems, and the key
psychological aspect is not

534
00:24:55,450 --> 00:24:57,850
the impatience and
aggressiveness.

535
00:24:57,850 --> 00:25:01,970
Although if you work for
somebody like that, you don't

536
00:25:01,970 --> 00:25:03,160
enjoy that, probably.

537
00:25:03,160 --> 00:25:05,730
But the key thing is whether the
person feels in themselves

538
00:25:05,730 --> 00:25:09,230
hostility, not impatience but
hostility, and especially when

539
00:25:09,230 --> 00:25:10,630
they suppress it.

540
00:25:10,630 --> 00:25:13,750
Like, they go, I'm so mad, I'm
so mad, I'm so mad but I can't

541
00:25:13,750 --> 00:25:16,670
really hit the person in
front of the line.

542
00:25:16,670 --> 00:25:19,570
And that person brewing with
hostility and suppressing that

543
00:25:19,570 --> 00:25:21,650
rage is actually pushing
up their risk of

544
00:25:21,650 --> 00:25:24,410
cardiovascular disorders.

545
00:25:24,410 --> 00:25:27,450
So again we talked about to
adaptive stress-responses and

546
00:25:27,450 --> 00:25:30,960
for practically every one of
them, what can be understood

547
00:25:30,960 --> 00:25:34,860
to be a stress-related disease
when that form of stress

548
00:25:34,860 --> 00:25:36,810
continues chronically
and unabated.

549
00:25:36,810 --> 00:25:40,320
And here's a picture of a neuron
in a healthy animal

550
00:25:40,320 --> 00:25:43,200
with lots of dendrites and
arborization, and the

551
00:25:43,200 --> 00:25:46,020
whithered neuron in a
hippocampal animal given lots

552
00:25:46,020 --> 00:25:48,110
of stress in laboratory
experiments.

553
00:25:48,110 --> 00:25:49,874
So you can see it at the
neuronal level, you can see it

554
00:25:49,874 --> 00:25:51,640
at the behavioral level, you
can see it at the disease

555
00:25:51,640 --> 00:25:58,280
level, chronic stress is
toxic in many ways.

556
00:25:58,280 --> 00:26:03,200
So one form of stress that
occurs after really terrible

557
00:26:03,200 --> 00:26:06,390
experiences is post-traumatic
stress disorder.

558
00:26:06,390 --> 00:26:07,950
And you may have heard--

559
00:26:07,950 --> 00:26:11,090
where do you hear it these
days most of all, about

560
00:26:11,090 --> 00:26:13,124
post-traumatic stress
disorder?

561
00:26:13,124 --> 00:26:13,900
AUDIENCE: The wars.

562
00:26:13,900 --> 00:26:15,220
PROFESSOR: The wars, right.

563
00:26:15,220 --> 00:26:18,760
The unabated wars in the Middle
East, for American

564
00:26:18,760 --> 00:26:21,840
soldiers going over there under
many tours of duty,

565
00:26:21,840 --> 00:26:24,080
under constant fear
of explosion.

566
00:26:24,080 --> 00:26:26,860
For the civilian populations
in those parts of the world

567
00:26:26,860 --> 00:26:30,890
under nonstop war threat
for many, many years.

568
00:26:30,890 --> 00:26:36,620
So, if you did a brutal, vicious
experiment of people

569
00:26:36,620 --> 00:26:39,350
under constant threat for their
life, unfortunately you

570
00:26:39,350 --> 00:26:43,790
couldn't create a more perfect
one than the Middle East, for

571
00:26:43,790 --> 00:26:46,520
both soldiers and civilians for
the last decade, right?

572
00:26:46,520 --> 00:26:48,440
Constant threat and
danger for people,

573
00:26:48,440 --> 00:26:50,960
everywhere, all the time.

574
00:26:50,960 --> 00:26:53,180
I was reading a story about
one soldier, for example,

575
00:26:53,180 --> 00:26:56,930
civilians as well, who was
standing in line to get his

576
00:26:56,930 --> 00:27:00,490
toothpaste, IED blows up
and he loses his leg.

577
00:27:00,490 --> 00:27:02,450
That's what the life is like
for those soldiers.

578
00:27:02,450 --> 00:27:05,720
And as you know, because in
the US we have a volunteer

579
00:27:05,720 --> 00:27:10,070
army, soldiers are sent again
and again for years

580
00:27:10,070 --> 00:27:11,570
altogether.

581
00:27:11,570 --> 00:27:14,310
And the civilians living there
all the time, that's the world

582
00:27:14,310 --> 00:27:18,890
they're in, brutal
stress induction.

583
00:27:18,890 --> 00:27:22,760
Just a few months ago, the
number of American soldiers

584
00:27:22,760 --> 00:27:26,910
who died from suicide is now, on
a monthly basis, exceeding

585
00:27:26,910 --> 00:27:28,810
those who die from
war injuries.

586
00:27:28,810 --> 00:27:29,940
Think about that.

587
00:27:29,940 --> 00:27:33,520
The number of active American
soldier who die from suicide

588
00:27:33,520 --> 00:27:37,190
is equal to or higher in many
months nowadays than the

589
00:27:37,190 --> 00:27:41,040
number who died from war
consequences of bombs and

590
00:27:41,040 --> 00:27:42,290
things like that.

591
00:27:42,290 --> 00:27:45,660
So, there's a lot of interest
in PTSD from the war, from

592
00:27:45,660 --> 00:27:48,090
civilians having been exposed
to the war, and then from

593
00:27:48,090 --> 00:27:50,240
individuals who have brutal
episodes in their lives,

594
00:27:50,240 --> 00:27:52,280
tragically, of assault
or rape.

595
00:27:52,280 --> 00:27:54,820
It's a severe anxiety disorder
that can develop after

596
00:27:54,820 --> 00:27:56,430
exposure to any event
which results in

597
00:27:56,430 --> 00:27:58,130
psychological trauma.

598
00:27:58,130 --> 00:28:00,290
People re-experience the
original trauma through

599
00:28:00,290 --> 00:28:04,120
flashbacks, dreams, increased
arousal, hyper-vigilance.

600
00:28:04,120 --> 00:28:07,520
And it's very common for anybody
who goes through an

601
00:28:07,520 --> 00:28:11,820
emotionally brutal experience
and it persists strongly in

602
00:28:11,820 --> 00:28:14,110
what's estimated about 20%
of people who go through

603
00:28:14,110 --> 00:28:17,160
something like that.

604
00:28:17,160 --> 00:28:19,940
So people have tried to
understand, what is the brain

605
00:28:19,940 --> 00:28:24,580
basis of PTSD, who is at risk
for it, and how does it happen

606
00:28:24,580 --> 00:28:26,510
in the brain in a way that
treatment might become more

607
00:28:26,510 --> 00:28:28,160
effective to help people.

608
00:28:28,160 --> 00:28:30,270
So one thing that was observed,
and not everybody

609
00:28:30,270 --> 00:28:33,640
guessed this finding, is that
individuals with smaller

610
00:28:33,640 --> 00:28:36,650
volumes of the hippocampus--

611
00:28:36,650 --> 00:28:38,910
when they look at soldiers with
PTSD they tend to smaller

612
00:28:38,910 --> 00:28:40,650
hippocampal volumes.

613
00:28:40,650 --> 00:28:45,830
So, let's ask the question, how
could this be a cause or

614
00:28:45,830 --> 00:28:49,660
how could this be a consequence
of a severely

615
00:28:49,660 --> 00:28:52,900
traumatic experience you have,
like serving in a particularly

616
00:28:52,900 --> 00:28:55,200
brutal and nasty war--

617
00:28:55,200 --> 00:28:56,110
or being a civilian in one.

618
00:28:56,110 --> 00:29:00,600
But these are soldier studies,
so we'll focus on that.

619
00:29:00,600 --> 00:29:01,560
How can you tell?

620
00:29:01,560 --> 00:29:04,650
They come back from the war,
they have PTSD they have

621
00:29:04,650 --> 00:29:07,140
smaller hippocampi.

622
00:29:07,140 --> 00:29:11,340
Was that a risk factor for
becoming somebody with PTSD

623
00:29:11,340 --> 00:29:15,180
into a high-stress situation, or
was it the way that the war

624
00:29:15,180 --> 00:29:17,340
situation made you have PTSD?

625
00:29:17,340 --> 00:29:19,400
Is it the cause, or
the consequence?

626
00:29:19,400 --> 00:29:20,490
Does that make sense?

627
00:29:20,490 --> 00:29:24,600
OK, so here's an approach
that people have taken.

628
00:29:24,600 --> 00:29:25,312
They did a twin study--

629
00:29:25,312 --> 00:29:27,360
I'll show you the graph
in a moment--

630
00:29:27,360 --> 00:29:31,130
where one twin, this was for
Vietnam now, went to serve in

631
00:29:31,130 --> 00:29:35,980
Vietnam, and one twin did not
serve in the military at all.

632
00:29:35,980 --> 00:29:39,360
And these are identical twins.

633
00:29:39,360 --> 00:29:43,690
And then they asked is the
hippocampus smaller in the

634
00:29:43,690 --> 00:29:45,820
twin who never went?

635
00:29:45,820 --> 00:29:48,640
And the logic was--

636
00:29:48,640 --> 00:29:50,100
it's not a complete
certainty--

637
00:29:50,100 --> 00:29:54,530
but the logic is, if the twin
who stays home in the US also

638
00:29:54,530 --> 00:29:58,360
has a smaller hippocampus, that
suggests that it's a risk

639
00:29:58,360 --> 00:30:02,860
factor for PTSD, rather
than the way that PTSD

640
00:30:02,860 --> 00:30:03,985
develops in the brain.

641
00:30:03,985 --> 00:30:05,230
Does that make sense?

642
00:30:05,230 --> 00:30:07,180
It might also play a role in
that, but it's present even

643
00:30:07,180 --> 00:30:08,060
before that.

644
00:30:08,060 --> 00:30:09,580
And that's exactly
what they found--

645
00:30:09,580 --> 00:30:12,320
these graphs, I really have to
get the projector fixed-- but

646
00:30:12,320 --> 00:30:14,910
there's two steep lines here
on your notes you'll see.

647
00:30:14,910 --> 00:30:16,150
They're both pretty steep.

648
00:30:16,150 --> 00:30:19,840
The top one is the correlation
between severity of PTSD in

649
00:30:19,840 --> 00:30:23,130
the soldiers who went and
hippocampal volume.

650
00:30:23,130 --> 00:30:25,640
And the bottom is hippocampal
volume in the twins who didn't

651
00:30:25,640 --> 00:30:29,090
go, and they look incredibly
similar.

652
00:30:29,090 --> 00:30:32,440
That is, the larger hippocampus
of either the twin

653
00:30:32,440 --> 00:30:36,350
who went to war or the twin who
stayed home, the larger of

654
00:30:36,350 --> 00:30:38,850
either one correlated
with the PTSD in the

655
00:30:38,850 --> 00:30:40,185
twin who went to war.

656
00:30:40,185 --> 00:30:41,080
Does that make sense?

657
00:30:41,080 --> 00:30:41,750
OK.

658
00:30:41,750 --> 00:30:44,480
So it's as if the genetic
influence, or the early

659
00:30:44,480 --> 00:30:47,750
environmental influence
at home, or both--

660
00:30:47,750 --> 00:30:49,760
if you have a smaller
hippocampus, you're at high

661
00:30:49,760 --> 00:30:51,390
risk for PTSD.

662
00:30:51,390 --> 00:30:53,800
Now, if you're not sent
into war, you won't

663
00:30:53,800 --> 00:30:54,910
necessarily get PTSD.

664
00:30:54,910 --> 00:30:57,550
But if you're sent into war,
then you're at high risk for

665
00:30:57,550 --> 00:30:59,310
getting PTSD.

666
00:30:59,310 --> 00:31:00,880
Is that OK?

667
00:31:00,880 --> 00:31:03,870
So, more recently people have
begun to do pre/post studies,

668
00:31:03,870 --> 00:31:09,290
and this is one done in the
Israeli military, 50 recruits

669
00:31:09,290 --> 00:31:12,880
before and after they did
military service as

670
00:31:12,880 --> 00:31:14,380
paramedics.

671
00:31:14,380 --> 00:31:16,020
And what they found was that
there was increased stress

672
00:31:16,020 --> 00:31:17,740
associated with a greater
amygdala and hippocampal

673
00:31:17,740 --> 00:31:21,060
response fMRI to stress-related
content.

674
00:31:21,060 --> 00:31:23,980
But the amygdala reactivity
before stress-related contact

675
00:31:23,980 --> 00:31:27,660
predicted how many stress
symptoms you have, and the

676
00:31:27,660 --> 00:31:28,630
hippocampus change over time

677
00:31:28,630 --> 00:31:29,890
correlated with stress symptoms.

678
00:31:29,890 --> 00:31:31,630
So now this goes a little bit
differently, it says the

679
00:31:31,630 --> 00:31:36,250
amygdala function predicts who's
at risk for having PTSD,

680
00:31:36,250 --> 00:31:39,610
and the hippocampal changes
over time before and after

681
00:31:39,610 --> 00:31:42,190
your initial service go with
the degree to which you

682
00:31:42,190 --> 00:31:44,424
exhibit the PTSD.

683
00:31:44,424 --> 00:31:47,240
I'll just say that.

684
00:31:47,240 --> 00:31:50,690
So, there's been a lot of work
on understanding what can

685
00:31:50,690 --> 00:31:55,190
positively modify stress.

686
00:31:55,190 --> 00:31:59,730
What can you do, given stress
you can't avoid, to do better

687
00:31:59,730 --> 00:32:00,980
and cope better with that?

688
00:32:00,980 --> 00:32:02,790
What can be the sources
of resilience?

689
00:32:02,790 --> 00:32:04,250
And I'm going to give you
examples, but I'm going to

690
00:32:04,250 --> 00:32:06,360
tell you the following, these
are the categories that have

691
00:32:06,360 --> 00:32:09,250
come up in pretty
well-controlled studies.

692
00:32:09,250 --> 00:32:11,500
Outlets for frustration, if
you have a good outlet for

693
00:32:11,500 --> 00:32:15,670
frustration, that diminishes the
toxic effects of stress.

694
00:32:15,670 --> 00:32:19,740
If you can predict bad things
and feel you have control,

695
00:32:19,740 --> 00:32:22,890
even if you have bad things
happen, you can cope with the

696
00:32:22,890 --> 00:32:23,990
consequences better.

697
00:32:23,990 --> 00:32:25,860
We talked about that in learned
helplessness before,

698
00:32:25,860 --> 00:32:27,720
this was our theme before.

699
00:32:27,720 --> 00:32:30,340
If things seem to be getting
better, even if they're pretty

700
00:32:30,340 --> 00:32:32,940
bad, if they seem to be getting
better, that's a huge

701
00:32:32,940 --> 00:32:34,850
source of resilience.

702
00:32:34,850 --> 00:32:36,690
And social support
is very powerful.

703
00:32:36,690 --> 00:32:37,770
So let me show you
the empirical

704
00:32:37,770 --> 00:32:39,540
evidence for these things.

705
00:32:39,540 --> 00:32:42,740
So, here's a study where
rats received shocks.

706
00:32:42,740 --> 00:32:44,750
They had a prolonged stress
response, because they were in

707
00:32:44,750 --> 00:32:47,830
a situation of getting shocks
and shocks and shocks.

708
00:32:47,830 --> 00:32:49,620
Heart rate goes up,
glucocorticoid cortical

709
00:32:49,620 --> 00:32:51,820
secretion goes up, high
rate of ulcers.

710
00:32:54,520 --> 00:32:56,290
Now you have other rats getting
a similar thing, but

711
00:32:56,290 --> 00:32:58,570
they can gnaw on a wooden
bar, or eat or

712
00:32:58,570 --> 00:32:59,750
drink, or run on a wheel.

713
00:32:59,750 --> 00:33:01,350
So, they have outlets
for frustration.

714
00:33:01,350 --> 00:33:04,650
It doesn't prevent the shocks,
it's just after they get a

715
00:33:04,650 --> 00:33:07,900
shock they'll go for a quick
angry run on the wheel, OK, or

716
00:33:07,900 --> 00:33:10,170
they'll bite on something, OK?

717
00:33:10,170 --> 00:33:12,040
And they have fewer ulcers.

718
00:33:12,040 --> 00:33:15,020
So, just having an outlet
for frustration

719
00:33:15,020 --> 00:33:18,120
reduces the toxic effects.

720
00:33:18,120 --> 00:33:20,070
Even another rat in the
cage that they can go

721
00:33:20,070 --> 00:33:22,080
and bite helps, OK?

722
00:33:22,080 --> 00:33:24,830
Now that's not a nice thing for
the other rats, but it's

723
00:33:24,830 --> 00:33:27,490
just like this common thing
that we have, it's not the

724
00:33:27,490 --> 00:33:30,550
best human trait, this is an
example of a rat trait as an

725
00:33:30,550 --> 00:33:33,870
example, but if somebody is as
miserable as you, you feel

726
00:33:33,870 --> 00:33:36,640
better about things, OK?

727
00:33:36,640 --> 00:33:39,680
And baboons will attack
bystanders

728
00:33:39,680 --> 00:33:40,640
after losing a fight.

729
00:33:40,640 --> 00:33:43,270
So, baboons, depending on
where they are in the

730
00:33:43,270 --> 00:33:47,600
hierarchy, alpha male and so
on, they lose a fight, they

731
00:33:47,600 --> 00:33:50,000
get themselves healthier in
terms of glucocorticoids if

732
00:33:50,000 --> 00:33:51,990
after they lose a fight
they go beat up a

733
00:33:51,990 --> 00:33:54,270
lower-ranking baboon.

734
00:33:54,270 --> 00:33:56,180
we're not recommending that as
a nice way to behave, we're

735
00:33:56,180 --> 00:33:59,630
just saying, weirdly enough,
these kinds of actions some

736
00:33:59,630 --> 00:34:00,580
outlet for frustration--

737
00:34:00,580 --> 00:34:03,010
some are more constructive
than others--

738
00:34:03,010 --> 00:34:05,020
result in resilience
in these animals.

739
00:34:05,020 --> 00:34:07,030
Fewer ulcers, lowering
of glucocorticoids.

740
00:34:07,030 --> 00:34:10,909
So, some kind of outlet
for stress.

741
00:34:10,909 --> 00:34:13,610
How about predictability
and control?

742
00:34:13,610 --> 00:34:16,690
So if rats hear a warning before
a shock, even though

743
00:34:16,690 --> 00:34:17,889
they get an equal number
of shocks,

744
00:34:17,889 --> 00:34:19,380
they have fewer ulcers.

745
00:34:19,380 --> 00:34:22,670
So, as long as they can know the
shock is coming, they have

746
00:34:22,670 --> 00:34:26,239
all the dread of that too, but
they feel like I know what's

747
00:34:26,239 --> 00:34:29,699
going on, and that literally
results in fewer ulcers.

748
00:34:29,699 --> 00:34:35,190
If food is delivered to a rat at
intermittent intervals they

749
00:34:35,190 --> 00:34:37,790
can predict versus random
delivery, they're more

750
00:34:37,790 --> 00:34:39,030
stressed with the
random delivery.

751
00:34:39,030 --> 00:34:39,940
Again, prediction--

752
00:34:39,940 --> 00:34:42,030
equal amount of food, but if
they can predict it, they feel

753
00:34:42,030 --> 00:34:43,940
like they know what's
going on.

754
00:34:43,940 --> 00:34:47,990
Rats are given a lever to avoid
the shock, even if the

755
00:34:47,990 --> 00:34:49,670
lever is disconnected
to the shocks, the

756
00:34:49,670 --> 00:34:51,400
stress response is reduced.

757
00:34:51,400 --> 00:34:53,480
So, it's kind of an outlet too,
like here's a lever I'm

758
00:34:53,480 --> 00:34:55,900
pushing, it doesn't do
anything, but they

759
00:34:55,900 --> 00:34:57,560
feel like, who knows?

760
00:34:57,560 --> 00:34:59,580
I feel like I have
some control.

761
00:34:59,580 --> 00:35:01,080
Same thing with people, they
did experiments where they

762
00:35:01,080 --> 00:35:03,400
give obnoxious noises,
and one person has a

763
00:35:03,400 --> 00:35:05,400
button to stop the noise.

764
00:35:05,400 --> 00:35:08,240
They're less hypertensive
whether the button

765
00:35:08,240 --> 00:35:09,070
is pressed or not.

766
00:35:09,070 --> 00:35:12,170
So they don't even have to
press, but if they feel like,

767
00:35:12,170 --> 00:35:14,840
they feel like they might have
control that's already a

768
00:35:14,840 --> 00:35:17,340
protective measure for stress.

769
00:35:17,340 --> 00:35:19,550
And there's famous studies
looking at occupational

770
00:35:19,550 --> 00:35:22,100
stress, because some
jobs have very high

771
00:35:22,100 --> 00:35:22,910
demand and low control.

772
00:35:22,910 --> 00:35:26,010
The most famous one that I
know of is from pilots in

773
00:35:26,010 --> 00:35:28,370
World War II in the
British Air Force.

774
00:35:28,370 --> 00:35:30,720
And they compared the pilot, who
sat up front and rode the

775
00:35:30,720 --> 00:35:32,900
plane, versus the gunner--

776
00:35:32,900 --> 00:35:35,850
and if you think of those
airplanes from books or movies

777
00:35:35,850 --> 00:35:37,900
there's a little turret down and
there's a gunner shooting

778
00:35:37,900 --> 00:35:39,520
at the other planes and they're
shooting back at him--

779
00:35:39,520 --> 00:35:42,450
does he feel like he
has any control?

780
00:35:42,450 --> 00:35:43,340
No.

781
00:35:43,340 --> 00:35:45,260
Wherever the pilot's going he's
like, no don't go there,

782
00:35:45,260 --> 00:35:46,890
don't go there they're all
just shooting at him.

783
00:35:46,890 --> 00:35:49,090
So, and then they look at the
life expectancy and health of

784
00:35:49,090 --> 00:35:51,990
the people and the pilots did a
lot better than the gunners

785
00:35:51,990 --> 00:35:53,170
after the war.

786
00:35:53,170 --> 00:35:55,710
Because the gunners just went
out day-in, day-out and they

787
00:35:55,710 --> 00:35:58,220
just went wherever the pilot
took them and the shots were

788
00:35:58,220 --> 00:35:58,680
coming out.

789
00:35:58,680 --> 00:36:01,570
So everybody was at risk, but
the pilots felt they had

790
00:36:01,570 --> 00:36:04,420
control and the gunners felt
they had no control.

791
00:36:04,420 --> 00:36:05,810
So, many different examples.

792
00:36:05,810 --> 00:36:07,970
Here's a very famous one, and
I read somewhere they're

793
00:36:07,970 --> 00:36:10,250
making a movie of this, I don't
know exactly how they'll

794
00:36:10,250 --> 00:36:12,770
make compelling,
but here we go.

795
00:36:12,770 --> 00:36:16,670
So this is a study from Judy
Rodin and Ellen Langer where

796
00:36:16,670 --> 00:36:17,900
they looked at the sense
of predictability

797
00:36:17,900 --> 00:36:19,310
in a nursing home.

798
00:36:19,310 --> 00:36:21,300
And they took people at randomly
assigned, from

799
00:36:21,300 --> 00:36:23,270
randomly selected different
floors.

800
00:36:23,270 --> 00:36:26,290
And group A, in the nursing
home, got to make many

801
00:36:26,290 --> 00:36:27,800
decisions for themselves.

802
00:36:27,800 --> 00:36:30,580
They got to decide where to
receive their visitors, when

803
00:36:30,580 --> 00:36:33,190
to watch a movie, what house
plant to take care of-- they

804
00:36:33,190 --> 00:36:34,660
all took care of
a house plant.

805
00:36:34,660 --> 00:36:38,260
These are sort of minor things
but people in a nursing home

806
00:36:38,260 --> 00:36:39,510
don't have a huge
range of things

807
00:36:39,510 --> 00:36:40,710
they can control anyway.

808
00:36:40,710 --> 00:36:42,660
But they took these things they
could put under their

809
00:36:42,660 --> 00:36:44,680
control, and group B got no

810
00:36:44,680 --> 00:36:46,000
instructions to make decisions.

811
00:36:46,000 --> 00:36:48,490
They got a plant, but the staff
took care of the plants.

812
00:36:48,490 --> 00:36:50,970
So everybody gets a plant, but
one group, they're saying make

813
00:36:50,970 --> 00:36:52,420
the decisions you can
for yourself.

814
00:36:52,420 --> 00:36:54,880
And the other group, the nurses
and doctors made all

815
00:36:54,880 --> 00:36:58,580
the decisions they could
for those individuals.

816
00:36:58,580 --> 00:36:59,920
They look at what happened
one and a half

817
00:36:59,920 --> 00:37:01,510
years later after this.

818
00:37:01,510 --> 00:37:03,410
Not only the group A, the
people who are making

819
00:37:03,410 --> 00:37:05,820
decisions for themselves in
the nursing home, report

820
00:37:05,820 --> 00:37:07,350
themselves to be more cheerful,

821
00:37:07,350 --> 00:37:09,550
more active, and alert.

822
00:37:09,550 --> 00:37:11,810
They were also objectively
healthier and, kind of

823
00:37:11,810 --> 00:37:16,180
amazingly, only half as many
had died, literally died.

824
00:37:16,180 --> 00:37:18,500
So it's an extremely
compelling--

825
00:37:18,500 --> 00:37:20,450
I've shown you so many sources
of evidence, from controlled

826
00:37:20,450 --> 00:37:23,740
animal things to anecdotal
things to kind of a controlled

827
00:37:23,740 --> 00:37:27,240
experiment with humans with
random assignment here, where

828
00:37:27,240 --> 00:37:31,450
the sense that a person has
control is incredibly powerful

829
00:37:31,450 --> 00:37:35,130
not only for their happiness,
but it literally seems to

830
00:37:35,130 --> 00:37:38,840
fight off stress-related
diseases in their body, in

831
00:37:38,840 --> 00:37:40,745
their hearts and their
life expectancy.

832
00:37:43,470 --> 00:37:45,390
Now the psychological modifiers
of the stress

833
00:37:45,390 --> 00:37:48,220
response are going to vary
depending on who you are and

834
00:37:48,220 --> 00:37:48,940
the culture you're in.

835
00:37:48,940 --> 00:37:50,430
I'm going to show you one
experiment about that, we'll

836
00:37:50,430 --> 00:37:51,890
talk a little bit later about
different cultures.

837
00:37:51,890 --> 00:37:55,190
But here's one about what counts
as predictably and

838
00:37:55,190 --> 00:37:58,820
control, it'll vary
by culture.

839
00:37:58,820 --> 00:38:02,060
So, we'll talk more about this
in social psychology, but

840
00:38:02,060 --> 00:38:05,620
social psychologists like
to talk about one giant

841
00:38:05,620 --> 00:38:08,440
distinction around the world
as a simplified way of

842
00:38:08,440 --> 00:38:11,590
organizing a huge complexity
of cultures--

843
00:38:11,590 --> 00:38:15,000
individualist cultures and
collectivist cultures.

844
00:38:15,000 --> 00:38:17,650
Individualist cultures tend to
emphasize the individual--

845
00:38:17,650 --> 00:38:19,590
be yourself, be all that
you can be, OK?

846
00:38:19,590 --> 00:38:22,930
You're the one, you're
the special person.

847
00:38:22,930 --> 00:38:28,400
That's thought to be common
as a cultural mode in

848
00:38:28,400 --> 00:38:30,140
the US and in Europe.

849
00:38:30,140 --> 00:38:33,470
Over time, just in the last
decade, people decided the US

850
00:38:33,470 --> 00:38:36,220
is like way, way out of control,
different than the

851
00:38:36,220 --> 00:38:37,860
rest of the world in this.

852
00:38:37,860 --> 00:38:41,110
The US would send this message
to everybody, the way to be

853
00:38:41,110 --> 00:38:43,965
happy and successful is to
be super individualistic.

854
00:38:46,550 --> 00:38:48,860
Europe, a little less so.

855
00:38:48,860 --> 00:38:52,650
And other cultures, Japan South
Korea, China received a

856
00:38:52,650 --> 00:38:54,290
lot of attention--
and East Asia--

857
00:38:54,290 --> 00:38:56,050
tend to be more like we're
in this together.

858
00:38:56,050 --> 00:38:59,650
Now this is super simplifying
over many people, many

859
00:38:59,650 --> 00:39:00,580
situations.

860
00:39:00,580 --> 00:39:02,900
But cultures do send messages.

861
00:39:02,900 --> 00:39:05,710
Where you grow up, everything
from your household to your

862
00:39:05,710 --> 00:39:07,580
town you're in, the school
you're in, the

863
00:39:07,580 --> 00:39:08,940
country you're in.

864
00:39:08,940 --> 00:39:11,480
They send you messages
of ways to be.

865
00:39:11,480 --> 00:39:13,810
I mean, we live in them.

866
00:39:13,810 --> 00:39:16,500
And here's an example, an
experiment that shows,

867
00:39:16,500 --> 00:39:19,200
depending on the cultural
influences, roughly speaking,

868
00:39:19,200 --> 00:39:22,640
averaging out across people and
families, you can view one

869
00:39:22,640 --> 00:39:28,110
thing or another as a better,
healthier, happier control.

870
00:39:28,110 --> 00:39:29,690
So here's the experiment--

871
00:39:29,690 --> 00:39:31,830
and there's a bunch these,
but this is one.

872
00:39:31,830 --> 00:39:34,240
In an elementary school, I think
it was in San Francisco,

873
00:39:34,240 --> 00:39:37,370
7 to 9 year olds who are either
from Asian-American

874
00:39:37,370 --> 00:39:38,920
families or Anglo-American
families.

875
00:39:38,920 --> 00:39:40,780
So that's the cultural thing,
trying to look at this

876
00:39:40,780 --> 00:39:43,070
cultural versus individualist.

877
00:39:43,070 --> 00:39:45,780
Parenthetically, Asian-American
families in the

878
00:39:45,780 --> 00:39:49,280
US are probably somewhere
in-between Asian families in

879
00:39:49,280 --> 00:39:52,440
Asia and Anglo-American families
in the US, right?

880
00:39:52,440 --> 00:39:55,140
Probably somewhere in between.

881
00:39:55,140 --> 00:39:57,260
So they did an experiment with
Ms. Smith, the teacher, and

882
00:39:57,260 --> 00:40:00,930
she has six markers and six
piles of anagrams, and

883
00:40:00,930 --> 00:40:03,960
somebody got to pick which
anagrams you would work on to

884
00:40:03,960 --> 00:40:05,350
do your best and solve, OK?

885
00:40:05,350 --> 00:40:08,520
So, typical school little
exercise, you try to do well.

886
00:40:08,520 --> 00:40:12,210
And they divided all these
children into three groups.

887
00:40:12,210 --> 00:40:14,570
In one group the children chose
which anagrams they

888
00:40:14,570 --> 00:40:16,170
would you do.

889
00:40:16,170 --> 00:40:18,450
In one group, the teacher
chose it.

890
00:40:18,450 --> 00:40:21,990
And one, they said we've
communicated with your mother

891
00:40:21,990 --> 00:40:25,180
and she says this is the
anagram set for you.

892
00:40:25,180 --> 00:40:26,930
OK, so you could think
in your own life.

893
00:40:26,930 --> 00:40:30,220
If you arrive to class tomorrow
at MIT and people

894
00:40:30,220 --> 00:40:32,640
told you, here's
a problem set.

895
00:40:32,640 --> 00:40:35,520
You pick the problems, I pick
the problems, or I emailed

896
00:40:35,520 --> 00:40:37,500
your mother and she said you
should really try those

897
00:40:37,500 --> 00:40:38,620
problems, OK?

898
00:40:38,620 --> 00:40:39,860
Well you're older
you wouldn't--

899
00:40:39,860 --> 00:40:42,010
you'd be weirded out, right?

900
00:40:42,010 --> 00:40:43,620
But 7 to 9 year olds.

901
00:40:43,620 --> 00:40:45,070
They sort of take that, right?

902
00:40:45,070 --> 00:40:46,900
Alright, here's the
interesting thing.

903
00:40:46,900 --> 00:40:49,470
So we're going to talk about
performance on the anagrams.

904
00:40:49,470 --> 00:40:53,210
So this is actual performance,
what seems like a

905
00:40:53,210 --> 00:40:54,450
self-controlled thing.

906
00:40:54,450 --> 00:40:57,490
For the children who are from
Anglo-American families, they

907
00:40:57,490 --> 00:41:00,990
performed best when they picked
the anagrams set.

908
00:41:00,990 --> 00:41:02,580
The anagram sets were all
equal difficulty.

909
00:41:02,580 --> 00:41:04,970
Just like, I picked it I know
what I'm doing, OK?

910
00:41:04,970 --> 00:41:07,640
Four times better than the
teacher and two and a half

911
00:41:07,640 --> 00:41:09,190
times better than when
the mother picked.

912
00:41:09,190 --> 00:41:11,580
That is, there's something about
picking that set that

913
00:41:11,580 --> 00:41:14,170
makes them feel like that's the
right set for them, and

914
00:41:14,170 --> 00:41:17,190
they perform best.

915
00:41:17,190 --> 00:41:19,000
For the children from
Asian-American families, on

916
00:41:19,000 --> 00:41:22,400
average they perform best when
the mother had selected the

917
00:41:22,400 --> 00:41:23,640
anagram set.

918
00:41:23,640 --> 00:41:27,060
30% better than themselves,
and twice

919
00:41:27,060 --> 00:41:29,010
as well as the teacher.

920
00:41:29,010 --> 00:41:33,030
So all this is saying is,
culture influences all of us

921
00:41:33,030 --> 00:41:34,980
in various ways, in
complicated ways.

922
00:41:34,980 --> 00:41:37,350
This is one of the easiest
things to identify, is this

923
00:41:37,350 --> 00:41:39,520
kind of a cultural difference.

924
00:41:39,520 --> 00:41:41,940
But the important thing is, it's
psychological what you

925
00:41:41,940 --> 00:41:44,600
perceive as a source
of control, right?

926
00:41:44,600 --> 00:41:47,300
So the way we interpret this
is, for children who are

927
00:41:47,300 --> 00:41:50,290
exposed heavily to an
Anglo-American emphasis on

928
00:41:50,290 --> 00:41:53,020
independent selfness.

929
00:41:53,020 --> 00:41:57,960
You're the one, you believe you
do best the most control

930
00:41:57,960 --> 00:42:00,240
is exerted, when you choose.

931
00:42:00,240 --> 00:42:04,340
And, apparently, for these
Asian-American children, they

932
00:42:04,340 --> 00:42:07,720
feel the best control has been
exerted when their mother had

933
00:42:07,720 --> 00:42:10,170
selected for them the
anagram they're most

934
00:42:10,170 --> 00:42:11,820
likely to succeed on.

935
00:42:11,820 --> 00:42:13,910
And the performance goes
with that belief for

936
00:42:13,910 --> 00:42:16,600
both groups of children.

937
00:42:16,600 --> 00:42:18,170
I always worry about these
things, and we're going to

938
00:42:18,170 --> 00:42:20,840
talk a little more about
stereotypes, because you

939
00:42:20,840 --> 00:42:22,890
sometimes feel like you're
supporting stereotypes, but

940
00:42:22,890 --> 00:42:24,100
these are real studies and
they didn't have to

941
00:42:24,100 --> 00:42:25,450
play out that way.

942
00:42:25,450 --> 00:42:29,580
And it's obviously this
doesn't say every

943
00:42:29,580 --> 00:42:31,030
Anglo-American is this
way, and every

944
00:42:31,030 --> 00:42:32,420
Asian-American is that way.

945
00:42:32,420 --> 00:42:35,700
But cultures do influence us,
otherwise the other choice is

946
00:42:35,700 --> 00:42:37,170
cultures don't influence us.

947
00:42:37,170 --> 00:42:39,630
And all the data says that
culture matters.

948
00:42:39,630 --> 00:42:42,050
The world we grow up in, the
values we're exposed to.

949
00:42:42,050 --> 00:42:46,990
OK here's another kind of brutal
experiment about sense

950
00:42:46,990 --> 00:42:50,560
of control from 1957.

951
00:42:50,560 --> 00:42:52,330
This is truly life and death.

952
00:42:52,330 --> 00:42:57,650
So, they were interested in
understanding really about

953
00:42:57,650 --> 00:43:01,630
survival for animals for water
temperature and endurance.

954
00:43:01,630 --> 00:43:04,140
And they put the rats in a jar,
and they asked, brutally,

955
00:43:04,140 --> 00:43:07,330
how long does a rat swim
before drowns?

956
00:43:07,330 --> 00:43:10,410
OK, this is a brutal experiment,
as you can--

957
00:43:10,410 --> 00:43:12,410
And the goal there was more
to understand things about

958
00:43:12,410 --> 00:43:14,200
temperature, and whether people
could survive different

959
00:43:14,200 --> 00:43:14,580
temperatures.

960
00:43:14,580 --> 00:43:16,270
It wasn't just to be
mean to rats, OK?

961
00:43:16,270 --> 00:43:20,250
The science goal was to
understand thermal survival

962
00:43:20,250 --> 00:43:22,480
for people, in the long run.

963
00:43:22,480 --> 00:43:24,110
But one thing they noticed
was this--

964
00:43:24,110 --> 00:43:27,510
some rats gave up in about 15
minutes, others would struggle

965
00:43:27,510 --> 00:43:31,170
as long as possible, and
would go for an hour

966
00:43:31,170 --> 00:43:33,280
before they gave up.

967
00:43:33,280 --> 00:43:37,410
Some would surrender quickly,
and some would fight as long

968
00:43:37,410 --> 00:43:40,040
as a rat can possibly
flight, OK?

969
00:43:40,040 --> 00:43:41,200
Now what's the difference
between those

970
00:43:41,200 --> 00:43:44,020
rats who give up early--

971
00:43:44,020 --> 00:43:45,403
Yeah?

972
00:43:45,403 --> 00:43:48,790
AUDIENCE: Did they give up after
60 minutes or 60 hours?

973
00:43:48,790 --> 00:43:51,110
PROFESSOR: 60 hours, I'm
sorry, it is 60 hours.

974
00:43:51,110 --> 00:43:51,740
OK?

975
00:43:51,740 --> 00:43:53,190
Yeah it is fantastic,
I'm sorry.

976
00:43:53,190 --> 00:43:55,200
Yes, you're right, I mis-said
that because--

977
00:43:55,200 --> 00:43:56,390
yes that's correct.

978
00:43:56,390 --> 00:44:01,490
But it's huge, OK,
and yes 60 hours.

979
00:44:01,490 --> 00:44:02,830
There we go, it is hours.

980
00:44:02,830 --> 00:44:03,590
OK, thank you.

981
00:44:03,590 --> 00:44:04,200
Is that unbelievable?

982
00:44:04,200 --> 00:44:05,000
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

983
00:44:05,000 --> 00:44:07,590
PROFESSOR: But for life and
death you might do that.

984
00:44:07,590 --> 00:44:08,510
For life and death?

985
00:44:08,510 --> 00:44:10,010
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

986
00:44:10,010 --> 00:44:13,540
PROFESSOR: But you can't
do anything else.

987
00:44:13,540 --> 00:44:14,880
I know, it's kind of amazing.

988
00:44:14,880 --> 00:44:17,090
What's amazing to them is not
necessarily the 60 hours,

989
00:44:17,090 --> 00:44:19,830
which is pretty impressive
itself, it's that some just

990
00:44:19,830 --> 00:44:23,410
gave up really fast and some
just went as long as you could

991
00:44:23,410 --> 00:44:26,300
go before you would expire,
no matter what.

992
00:44:26,300 --> 00:44:28,750
And I think what it is, they did
an experiment-- this is a

993
00:44:28,750 --> 00:44:31,500
little bit like the Seyle
experiment, but on purpose.

994
00:44:31,500 --> 00:44:35,160
But before they put the rats
into here, they picked up the

995
00:44:35,160 --> 00:44:36,940
rats they let them wiggle
around, and they would put

996
00:44:36,940 --> 00:44:39,800
them in and out of the water,
and then they would put them

997
00:44:39,800 --> 00:44:41,740
in this fatal final
experiment.

998
00:44:41,740 --> 00:44:44,630
And then practically all
of the rest went for

999
00:44:44,630 --> 00:44:46,970
the 60 hours of effort.

1000
00:44:46,970 --> 00:44:48,100
Why?

1001
00:44:48,100 --> 00:44:50,100
You can't really know, you
can't ask the rat, right?

1002
00:44:50,100 --> 00:44:52,600
But the interpretation is they
went in and out, they went in

1003
00:44:52,600 --> 00:44:53,590
and out, they struggle--

1004
00:44:53,590 --> 00:44:55,200
they had hope.

1005
00:44:55,200 --> 00:44:57,440
Literally, as far as we can
understand, they had hope.

1006
00:44:57,440 --> 00:44:59,410
Because before they were
taken out, OK?

1007
00:44:59,410 --> 00:45:01,420
And if you have hope,
you struggle for

1008
00:45:01,420 --> 00:45:03,070
a long, long time.

1009
00:45:03,070 --> 00:45:05,390
And if you're hopeless for some
reason if you don't have

1010
00:45:05,390 --> 00:45:08,940
hope, you give up fast.

1011
00:45:08,940 --> 00:45:12,310
So it's very compelling that
this sense of self control,

1012
00:45:12,310 --> 00:45:15,060
including hope, makes a
tremendous difference in

1013
00:45:15,060 --> 00:45:16,140
performance.

1014
00:45:16,140 --> 00:45:19,205
And it's very psychologically
malleable in people, what

1015
00:45:19,205 --> 00:45:23,500
counts, for them, as sources
of hope and control.

1016
00:45:23,500 --> 00:45:25,510
How about social support?

1017
00:45:25,510 --> 00:45:28,700
So in primates, after a stress
response, among strangers,

1018
00:45:28,700 --> 00:45:29,900
they're worse.

1019
00:45:29,900 --> 00:45:32,300
If they're among animals they
know, they're better.

1020
00:45:32,300 --> 00:45:34,540
And this is measured by
glucocorticoids, an objective

1021
00:45:34,540 --> 00:45:36,020
measure in monkeys.

1022
00:45:36,020 --> 00:45:38,290
That they're better if they're
among monkeys they know.

1023
00:45:38,290 --> 00:45:41,630
So, you could think in your
own life, family, friends.

1024
00:45:41,630 --> 00:45:46,300
Intuitively are they
sources of support?

1025
00:45:46,300 --> 00:45:47,550
Yes.

1026
00:45:49,480 --> 00:45:52,570
So, they do stressor experiments
with people.

1027
00:45:52,570 --> 00:45:54,260
A really good one is to tell
somebody they're about to do

1028
00:45:54,260 --> 00:45:57,060
public speaking task, that turns
out to scare people, or

1029
00:45:57,060 --> 00:45:58,910
a difficult math task, or
they're about to argue with a

1030
00:45:58,910 --> 00:46:01,200
stranger about a controversial
topic.

1031
00:46:01,200 --> 00:46:03,220
They have less cardiovascular
response if they're with a

1032
00:46:03,220 --> 00:46:06,610
supportive friend present when
they get the instruction, OK?

1033
00:46:06,610 --> 00:46:08,880
So if you're told you're going
to do something, like have a

1034
00:46:08,880 --> 00:46:10,890
really unpleasant argument with
somebody, but there's

1035
00:46:10,890 --> 00:46:13,050
somebody you know with you, who
you know, you have less of

1036
00:46:13,050 --> 00:46:15,795
a physiological response for the
dread, if you want, or the

1037
00:46:15,795 --> 00:46:17,700
stress of the upcoming event.

1038
00:46:17,700 --> 00:46:18,930
And then, so those
are controlled

1039
00:46:18,930 --> 00:46:19,780
experiment with people.

1040
00:46:19,780 --> 00:46:23,120
And there's epidemiological
observation that people with

1041
00:46:23,120 --> 00:46:26,210
spouses and close friends live
longer, that when spouses die,

1042
00:46:26,210 --> 00:46:29,850
the risk of dying increases for
the surviving spouse, that

1043
00:46:29,850 --> 00:46:33,390
parents of children killed in
war have a higher risk of

1044
00:46:33,390 --> 00:46:36,810
disease and mortality but only
if they're divorced and

1045
00:46:36,810 --> 00:46:39,740
widowed, that patients with
severe coronary disease had

1046
00:46:39,740 --> 00:46:41,520
three times the death rate over
five years if they lack

1047
00:46:41,520 --> 00:46:42,220
social support.

1048
00:46:42,220 --> 00:46:44,810
So these are all correlation
studies, all of them would

1049
00:46:44,810 --> 00:46:47,250
have alternative
interpretations, but they are

1050
00:46:47,250 --> 00:46:49,780
all consistent with these
experimental studies that

1051
00:46:49,780 --> 00:46:54,230
social support is an incredibly
powerful buffer for

1052
00:46:54,230 --> 00:46:59,450
resilience for stress
and threat.

1053
00:46:59,450 --> 00:47:03,410
Here's another one, perception
of life improving.

1054
00:47:03,410 --> 00:47:05,540
So, rats getting shocks.

1055
00:47:05,540 --> 00:47:11,520
Rat number one got 10 hours
a day, rat number

1056
00:47:11,520 --> 00:47:13,320
two got 50 per hour.

1057
00:47:13,320 --> 00:47:16,650
And day two, all rats
get 25 per hour.

1058
00:47:16,650 --> 00:47:19,500
So rat number one, life
is getting worse.

1059
00:47:19,500 --> 00:47:22,690
Rat number two, life
is getting better.

1060
00:47:22,690 --> 00:47:27,030
And it's the group that goes
from 10 to 25 that gets

1061
00:47:27,030 --> 00:47:28,330
hypertensive, OK?

1062
00:47:28,330 --> 00:47:30,840
So if you think things are
getting better things can

1063
00:47:30,840 --> 00:47:32,030
still be pretty bad.

1064
00:47:32,030 --> 00:47:35,400
But if they feel like they're
better, then you're going to

1065
00:47:35,400 --> 00:47:37,110
be happier.

1066
00:47:37,110 --> 00:47:38,240
As a side note--

1067
00:47:38,240 --> 00:47:40,490
I should have put this in as a
note but-- there's a work from

1068
00:47:40,490 --> 00:47:42,060
Danny Kahneman on perception
of pain.

1069
00:47:42,060 --> 00:47:46,250
So he talked about people who
went in to dentists, which can

1070
00:47:46,250 --> 00:47:49,650
be sometimes unpleasant, and
had them rate the pain

1071
00:47:49,650 --> 00:47:50,250
periodically.

1072
00:47:50,250 --> 00:47:52,130
And what he found is that, when
you look back in your

1073
00:47:52,130 --> 00:47:54,990
memory of how bad your
experience was, he could

1074
00:47:54,990 --> 00:47:57,170
predict it largely
by two numbers--

1075
00:47:57,170 --> 00:48:02,400
the peak pain response you
report and the change near the

1076
00:48:02,400 --> 00:48:04,330
end if it's getting better.

1077
00:48:04,330 --> 00:48:07,100
So what he discovers, weirdly
enough, is this--

1078
00:48:07,100 --> 00:48:11,320
if you have peak pain responses
that are similar

1079
00:48:11,320 --> 00:48:15,900
with the dentist, if you add
more pain but it's getting

1080
00:48:15,900 --> 00:48:19,120
lower, people will feel like
they had less pain overall,

1081
00:48:19,120 --> 00:48:20,380
even though you added pain.

1082
00:48:20,380 --> 00:48:22,530
Because if you just stop,
it just stops.

1083
00:48:22,530 --> 00:48:24,560
But now you've got a little bit
of pain, and it's getting

1084
00:48:24,560 --> 00:48:26,000
better and better and better.

1085
00:48:26,000 --> 00:48:28,750
So you're adding pain, but the
perception is, at the end it

1086
00:48:28,750 --> 00:48:29,670
was getting better.

1087
00:48:29,670 --> 00:48:30,690
Does that make sense?

1088
00:48:30,690 --> 00:48:32,570
OK, you're adding pain,
but it's getting less

1089
00:48:32,570 --> 00:48:33,190
and less and less.

1090
00:48:33,190 --> 00:48:35,020
But it's still an add, because
you're adding it.

1091
00:48:35,020 --> 00:48:37,200
People, in their mind,
they'll say it was

1092
00:48:37,200 --> 00:48:39,480
less painful overall.

1093
00:48:39,480 --> 00:48:41,820
Because, what counts for
them at the end is the

1094
00:48:41,820 --> 00:48:43,450
getting-betterness.

1095
00:48:43,450 --> 00:48:47,650
Getting better, even if it's
bad, is a hugely powerful way

1096
00:48:47,650 --> 00:48:49,030
the people view things
in terms of how

1097
00:48:49,030 --> 00:48:51,050
miserable life can be.

1098
00:48:51,050 --> 00:48:53,630
So here's a graph that
summarizes, here's risk of

1099
00:48:53,630 --> 00:48:54,480
ulcer in rats.

1100
00:48:54,480 --> 00:48:57,300
If there's another rat present,
if they get a warning

1101
00:48:57,300 --> 00:48:59,680
signal for control, a lever for
responsive, if things seem

1102
00:48:59,680 --> 00:49:01,600
to be getting better, if
they have friends.

1103
00:49:01,600 --> 00:49:05,400
All these things change the
physiological consequence of

1104
00:49:05,400 --> 00:49:07,960
very rough structures
in the laboratory.

1105
00:49:07,960 --> 00:49:10,980
And, as far as we could measure,
it seems to happen in

1106
00:49:10,980 --> 00:49:12,350
people as well.

1107
00:49:12,350 --> 00:49:14,100
So it's kind of a dual
story, right?

1108
00:49:14,100 --> 00:49:16,510
There's fantastic stressors that
we have in daily life in

1109
00:49:16,510 --> 00:49:18,560
the world we live in that are
chronic and unabating in many

1110
00:49:18,560 --> 00:49:22,180
ways, but quite well-identified
things they

1111
00:49:22,180 --> 00:49:25,260
can help us manage those
much, much better.

1112
00:49:25,260 --> 00:49:27,630
Or become victims of them,
much, much more likely.

1113
00:49:31,040 --> 00:49:36,260
OK, I'm going to talk a bit
about a couple studies about

1114
00:49:36,260 --> 00:49:38,760
pain and romance.

1115
00:49:38,760 --> 00:49:41,320
So, and this goes back to an
idea we talked about before,

1116
00:49:41,320 --> 00:49:41,990
but let me just remind you.

1117
00:49:41,990 --> 00:49:43,235
This idea of embodied
cognition.

1118
00:49:43,235 --> 00:49:46,390
That the nature of the human
mind largely determined by the

1119
00:49:46,390 --> 00:49:47,460
form of the human body.

1120
00:49:47,460 --> 00:49:50,820
That bottom-up physiology has
a bigger role in our mental

1121
00:49:50,820 --> 00:49:52,620
life than we might think.

1122
00:49:52,620 --> 00:49:55,760
And I'm going to talk about
emotional pain.

1123
00:49:55,760 --> 00:49:58,080
And two things that are very
painful emotionally--

1124
00:49:58,080 --> 00:50:00,050
and if you've gone through
, you know this-- they're

1125
00:50:00,050 --> 00:50:02,090
shockingly painful sometimes.

1126
00:50:02,090 --> 00:50:05,380
If you haven't had it recently,
they're social

1127
00:50:05,380 --> 00:50:11,350
rejection or romantic
rejection, right?

1128
00:50:11,350 --> 00:50:14,820
It's a sad thing, but it's true
that I think those are

1129
00:50:14,820 --> 00:50:17,560
shockingly painful for many
people, even if you didn't

1130
00:50:17,560 --> 00:50:18,910
think it was going
to be that bad.

1131
00:50:18,910 --> 00:50:22,780
The shock of being rejected
socially or romantically is a

1132
00:50:22,780 --> 00:50:24,990
pretty brutal experience
emotionally.

1133
00:50:24,990 --> 00:50:28,230
I'm going to show you guys from
pretty strong evidence

1134
00:50:28,230 --> 00:50:31,310
that it's because, when you
have that kind of pain it

1135
00:50:31,310 --> 00:50:36,850
literally turns on the same pain
system as heat or shocks.

1136
00:50:36,850 --> 00:50:37,200
OK?

1137
00:50:37,200 --> 00:50:39,220
Literally the same one gets
turned on as far as we can

1138
00:50:39,220 --> 00:50:39,620
measure it.

1139
00:50:39,620 --> 00:50:43,400
So, here's a thing just remind
you that pain has is comprised

1140
00:50:43,400 --> 00:50:44,810
of having two part.

1141
00:50:44,810 --> 00:50:46,910
A sensory one that's the
objective response to the

1142
00:50:46,910 --> 00:50:51,060
pain, and what people call
affective, that is, how much

1143
00:50:51,060 --> 00:50:52,650
you suffer from that pain.

1144
00:50:52,650 --> 00:50:54,120
So we could measure the
objective one and the

1145
00:50:54,120 --> 00:50:55,230
subjective one.

1146
00:50:55,230 --> 00:50:58,590
And a bunch of studies have
suggested that, for example

1147
00:50:58,590 --> 00:51:00,850
somatosensory cortex, this the
cortex that represents your

1148
00:51:00,850 --> 00:51:05,270
body, if you get physical pain
like a shock or heat gun,

1149
00:51:05,270 --> 00:51:07,760
responds to the amount
of that.

1150
00:51:07,760 --> 00:51:10,190
Whereas something like the
anterior sineal, this part of

1151
00:51:10,190 --> 00:51:12,530
the brain viewed from the top,
or this part viewed from the

1152
00:51:12,530 --> 00:51:14,510
side, interprets that pain.

1153
00:51:14,510 --> 00:51:17,490
So we know that people can
withstand pain sometimes, we

1154
00:51:17,490 --> 00:51:19,300
think this doesn't
care about that.

1155
00:51:19,300 --> 00:51:21,530
This is a part of your mind, or
a component of your mind,

1156
00:51:21,530 --> 00:51:23,750
supported by this part of the
brain, that tells you how much

1157
00:51:23,750 --> 00:51:27,430
you suffer subjectively from
an objective thing.

1158
00:51:27,430 --> 00:51:29,240
And part of reason they
think that is the

1159
00:51:29,240 --> 00:51:31,400
study, a hypnosis study.

1160
00:51:31,400 --> 00:51:33,030
So we talked before, is
hypnosis real or not?

1161
00:51:33,030 --> 00:51:34,060
This is one of the things
that should convince

1162
00:51:34,060 --> 00:51:34,530
you a little bit.

1163
00:51:34,530 --> 00:51:37,510
I was as skeptical as anybody
but this is me apart

1164
00:51:37,510 --> 00:51:40,060
So these are individuals who
are highly hypnotic, only

1165
00:51:40,060 --> 00:51:42,960
those are in this kind of
a study, who get pain.

1166
00:51:42,960 --> 00:51:44,960
And they're told to
imagine that the

1167
00:51:44,960 --> 00:51:49,110
pain is always identical.

1168
00:51:49,110 --> 00:51:52,340
it's always identical, but
they're hypnotically suggested

1169
00:51:52,340 --> 00:51:53,890
that it's high or low.

1170
00:51:53,890 --> 00:51:57,060
So in this primary response to
pain in the somatosensory

1171
00:51:57,060 --> 00:51:58,800
cortex, not much difference.

1172
00:51:58,800 --> 00:52:02,170
But in the interior cingulate in
the interpretation of pain,

1173
00:52:02,170 --> 00:52:03,440
a big difference.

1174
00:52:03,440 --> 00:52:06,420
Here's how much it is when they
think it's a low pain by

1175
00:52:06,420 --> 00:52:08,470
hypnotic suggestion, here's the
response when they think

1176
00:52:08,470 --> 00:52:09,380
it's high pain.

1177
00:52:09,380 --> 00:52:11,710
So this change in brain
response is

1178
00:52:11,710 --> 00:52:13,470
purely hypnotic effect.

1179
00:52:13,470 --> 00:52:16,340
The painful stimulus
is always constant.

1180
00:52:16,340 --> 00:52:16,740
Right?

1181
00:52:16,740 --> 00:52:19,370
But that supports of you that
this part is brain response is

1182
00:52:19,370 --> 00:52:22,820
an interpretation rather than a
simple objective response to

1183
00:52:22,820 --> 00:52:24,000
the pain itself.

1184
00:52:24,000 --> 00:52:27,180
There's many sources of
evidence for that.

1185
00:52:27,180 --> 00:52:31,450
So here's a study from Matt
Lieberman at UCLA, where you

1186
00:52:31,450 --> 00:52:34,330
come into a scanner and you're
playing a game with somebody.

1187
00:52:34,330 --> 00:52:36,380
Sometimes they tell you
there's a person

1188
00:52:36,380 --> 00:52:37,530
playing with you.

1189
00:52:37,530 --> 00:52:40,410
It's very simple and it just
shows you that even as adults

1190
00:52:40,410 --> 00:52:42,810
we retain some of our childhood
feelings, which is a

1191
00:52:42,810 --> 00:52:47,000
game very simple computerized
catch.

1192
00:52:47,000 --> 00:52:49,120
And sometimes a person who's
supposedly playing with you

1193
00:52:49,120 --> 00:52:51,950
outside the room throws
the ball back to you.

1194
00:52:51,950 --> 00:52:56,020
And sometimes the person is
really mean and they exclude

1195
00:52:56,020 --> 00:52:59,490
you from playing catch
on the computer.

1196
00:52:59,490 --> 00:53:02,640
So, this is about as silly a
version as you can get for

1197
00:53:02,640 --> 00:53:06,080
young adults participants for
pain, but hey we don't like

1198
00:53:06,080 --> 00:53:08,750
being left out even when it's
some weird experiment.

1199
00:53:08,750 --> 00:53:11,010
And set up a little bit so you
really believe the other

1200
00:53:11,010 --> 00:53:13,730
people in the experiment have
left you out of the ball

1201
00:53:13,730 --> 00:53:14,730
tossing game.

1202
00:53:14,730 --> 00:53:18,580
And here's what turns on, right
in the middle of this

1203
00:53:18,580 --> 00:53:22,260
pain region, the interior
cingulate for this pain of

1204
00:53:22,260 --> 00:53:26,230
social rejection under such
a mild circumstance, OK?

1205
00:53:26,230 --> 00:53:28,950
And, by the way, they do the
same experiment and they tell

1206
00:53:28,950 --> 00:53:31,080
you it's a computer who's
deciding whether to toss you

1207
00:53:31,080 --> 00:53:32,960
the ball, you don't
have a problem.

1208
00:53:32,960 --> 00:53:35,330
It's only when you believe it's
a person who's choosing

1209
00:53:35,330 --> 00:53:36,740
to exclude you.

1210
00:53:36,740 --> 00:53:37,490
OK?

1211
00:53:37,490 --> 00:53:39,940
So this was published in Science
because they said,

1212
00:53:39,940 --> 00:53:44,450
look being left out of a group
is as painful as if we had

1213
00:53:44,450 --> 00:53:46,910
given you a shock
or thermal gun.

1214
00:53:46,910 --> 00:53:50,190
And it could sound ridiculous,
but look it's the same system

1215
00:53:50,190 --> 00:53:50,930
that's responding.

1216
00:53:50,930 --> 00:53:53,770
OK so just recently a paper was
published where they said,

1217
00:53:53,770 --> 00:53:55,770
let's go all the way, this is
just a little laboratory

1218
00:53:55,770 --> 00:53:56,660
experiment.

1219
00:53:56,660 --> 00:54:00,910
Let's grab people who recently
self report a very unhappy

1220
00:54:00,910 --> 00:54:06,260
romantic breakup, OK, where
somebody left them.

1221
00:54:06,260 --> 00:54:09,430
So they gave them both physical
pain and they looked

1222
00:54:09,430 --> 00:54:10,720
at its relation to
romantic pain.

1223
00:54:10,720 --> 00:54:14,290
So participants felt intensely
rejected as a result of

1224
00:54:14,290 --> 00:54:16,630
recently experiencing
an unwanted romantic

1225
00:54:16,630 --> 00:54:17,800
relationship breakup.

1226
00:54:17,800 --> 00:54:20,580
What's the word we use for
that when somebody--

1227
00:54:20,580 --> 00:54:21,700
isn't there a word?

1228
00:54:21,700 --> 00:54:23,400
Help me out here.

1229
00:54:23,400 --> 00:54:24,600
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

1230
00:54:24,600 --> 00:54:24,860
PROFESSOR: Dumped.

1231
00:54:24,860 --> 00:54:26,530
Yeah, this is when somebody
dumps you.

1232
00:54:26,530 --> 00:54:27,390
Oh my god, I'm really hurt.

1233
00:54:27,390 --> 00:54:29,910
And what's wrong with me?

1234
00:54:29,910 --> 00:54:31,720
It's easy to laugh about
years later.

1235
00:54:31,720 --> 00:54:33,950
I could tell, I have a story
or two, but I won't

1236
00:54:33,950 --> 00:54:36,100
drag you into my--

1237
00:54:36,100 --> 00:54:40,390
but almost everybody lives
through a version of this some

1238
00:54:40,390 --> 00:54:41,100
time in their lives.

1239
00:54:41,100 --> 00:54:43,640
So it's surprisingly intense.

1240
00:54:43,640 --> 00:54:45,880
So what they did, this is
a tough experiment.

1241
00:54:45,880 --> 00:54:47,850
They had them view pictures
of ex-partners, the

1242
00:54:47,850 --> 00:54:49,110
person who left them.

1243
00:54:49,110 --> 00:54:49,400
OK?

1244
00:54:49,400 --> 00:54:51,390
I don't even know how they're
going to-- please bring us all

1245
00:54:51,390 --> 00:54:52,750
the pictures that are
now covered with

1246
00:54:52,750 --> 00:54:55,290
tears and stuff, right?

1247
00:54:55,290 --> 00:54:57,230
And you view those pictures,
they also had you bring in

1248
00:54:57,230 --> 00:54:59,270
pictures of other friends,
people you knew.

1249
00:54:59,270 --> 00:55:02,390
And you and either thought about
the ex-partners and how

1250
00:55:02,390 --> 00:55:04,170
you were rejected, or you
viewed pictures of your

1251
00:55:04,170 --> 00:55:05,190
friends and you thought
about good

1252
00:55:05,190 --> 00:55:06,020
things about your friends.

1253
00:55:06,020 --> 00:55:08,380
So they controlled for
looking at a face.

1254
00:55:08,380 --> 00:55:11,060
And here's where they find.

1255
00:55:11,060 --> 00:55:12,760
Here's physical pain
and social pain in

1256
00:55:12,760 --> 00:55:14,100
the anterior cingulate.

1257
00:55:14,100 --> 00:55:16,160
Pretty much turning on the
same part of the brain.

1258
00:55:16,160 --> 00:55:20,320
When you see the person who
dumped you and when you get a

1259
00:55:20,320 --> 00:55:22,720
heat gun applied to you that
exerts physical pain.

1260
00:55:22,720 --> 00:55:25,390
And in brain region after
brain region that which

1261
00:55:25,390 --> 00:55:29,490
responds to physical pain is
also turned on with the pain

1262
00:55:29,490 --> 00:55:32,900
of looking at somebody who
dumped you recently and you

1263
00:55:32,900 --> 00:55:36,580
still feel that feeling
of rejection.

1264
00:55:36,580 --> 00:55:40,890
So now all of this is social
rejection is very painful.

1265
00:55:40,890 --> 00:55:44,260
Romantic rejection is very
painful, painful literally.

1266
00:55:44,260 --> 00:55:44,840
OK?

1267
00:55:44,840 --> 00:55:46,450
It's not a metaphor,
it's not a story.

1268
00:55:46,450 --> 00:55:48,750
It's literally the same system
in your brain that feels

1269
00:55:48,750 --> 00:55:50,950
physical pain, feels
this emotion pain.

1270
00:55:50,950 --> 00:55:52,200
Emotional pain is
very powerful.

1271
00:55:55,580 --> 00:55:57,210
And here's an amazing
follow up with this.

1272
00:55:57,210 --> 00:55:59,506
And this is the kind of study--
it'd be interesting to

1273
00:55:59,506 --> 00:56:00,210
see this replicated--

1274
00:56:00,210 --> 00:56:01,940
but it kind of makes sense.

1275
00:56:01,940 --> 00:56:08,540
So they randomly assign people
to 2000 milligrams a pain

1276
00:56:08,540 --> 00:56:10,820
medication like Tylenol,
Excedrin for three weeks or

1277
00:56:10,820 --> 00:56:11,510
they got placebos.

1278
00:56:11,510 --> 00:56:14,050
So you don't know what you've
got, a double blind study.

1279
00:56:14,050 --> 00:56:16,030
They provide daily reports
of how their day was.

1280
00:56:16,030 --> 00:56:19,660
By day 15, they reported less
painful responses to rejection

1281
00:56:19,660 --> 00:56:20,990
in their daily lives.

1282
00:56:20,990 --> 00:56:24,040
And they also had less brain
response to social rejection,

1283
00:56:24,040 --> 00:56:27,380
by taking drugs that
work on pain.

1284
00:56:27,380 --> 00:56:29,850
And they don't even know it's
a double blind comparison.

1285
00:56:29,850 --> 00:56:31,200
Now there's all kinds
of issues--

1286
00:56:31,200 --> 00:56:32,700
for those of you, I've just
got to tell you this-- to

1287
00:56:32,700 --> 00:56:35,010
chronically take these
drugs, you get ulcers

1288
00:56:35,010 --> 00:56:36,470
and things like this.

1289
00:56:36,470 --> 00:56:38,760
so don't do that.

1290
00:56:38,760 --> 00:56:42,450
But it just pushes the point
that there's some incredibly

1291
00:56:42,450 --> 00:56:45,480
interesting relationship between
emotional pain and

1292
00:56:45,480 --> 00:56:50,640
physical pain that's
very striking.

1293
00:56:50,640 --> 00:56:53,520
OK now I'm going to go on for
the last few minutes to

1294
00:56:53,520 --> 00:56:54,220
another topic.

1295
00:56:54,220 --> 00:56:56,600
And again it's one of these
topics about racial relations

1296
00:56:56,600 --> 00:56:59,370
in the US that's always
a very difficult

1297
00:56:59,370 --> 00:57:00,170
topic in our culture.

1298
00:57:00,170 --> 00:57:05,210
And I hope I communicate it
correctly, and appropriately.

1299
00:57:05,210 --> 00:57:08,670
So we talked before about
stereotyped threat, and this

1300
00:57:08,670 --> 00:57:10,940
is a threat that a
person feels--

1301
00:57:10,940 --> 00:57:13,310
this is another form
of stress--

1302
00:57:13,310 --> 00:57:16,130
that others' judgments or one's
own actions will confirm

1303
00:57:16,130 --> 00:57:18,500
a negative stereotype
about one's group.

1304
00:57:18,500 --> 00:57:22,290
And that, for example, in
multiple studies that

1305
00:57:22,290 --> 00:57:26,890
African-Americans when a test
framed about a kind of a test

1306
00:57:26,890 --> 00:57:29,220
of people might think
African-Americans won't do

1307
00:57:29,220 --> 00:57:32,180
well, do less well, when they
just take the test they do

1308
00:57:32,180 --> 00:57:33,420
perfectly well.

1309
00:57:33,420 --> 00:57:35,695
And then we talked about that
whatever stereotype might

1310
00:57:35,695 --> 00:57:39,170
apply to you, when it's invoked
people under-perform

1311
00:57:39,170 --> 00:57:40,210
in that area.

1312
00:57:40,210 --> 00:57:44,400
And we interpret that as a sort
of a stress that's not

1313
00:57:44,400 --> 00:57:47,120
letting people perform
at their best.

1314
00:57:47,120 --> 00:57:51,750
So I'm going to talk about that
stress element, but we're

1315
00:57:51,750 --> 00:57:53,040
going to do an exercise.

1316
00:57:53,040 --> 00:57:55,040
And I need you to be sensitive
on this, and

1317
00:57:55,040 --> 00:57:55,930
hopefully I'll do it.

1318
00:57:55,930 --> 00:58:00,360
This is the most common way
that psychologists measure

1319
00:58:00,360 --> 00:58:04,070
attitude something about the
stereotypes that inhabit the

1320
00:58:04,070 --> 00:58:05,590
minds of people who live
in this country.

1321
00:58:05,590 --> 00:58:07,490
So we're going to do it as an
exercise if you're willing to

1322
00:58:07,490 --> 00:58:10,550
do, you just tap with one
hand or the other.

1323
00:58:10,550 --> 00:58:12,070
And we'll just try it
you don't have to do

1324
00:58:12,070 --> 00:58:14,700
this at your desk.

1325
00:58:14,700 --> 00:58:17,150
I read about this kind of
research for a number of years

1326
00:58:17,150 --> 00:58:19,440
before I ever did it as a
demonstration when I was at a

1327
00:58:19,440 --> 00:58:19,910
conference.

1328
00:58:19,910 --> 00:58:21,940
And somebody works in this field
did it and i it was kind

1329
00:58:21,940 --> 00:58:23,020
of striking when it happened.

1330
00:58:23,020 --> 00:58:25,390
So it's up to you anyway.

1331
00:58:25,390 --> 00:58:27,270
So think about whether you want
to do this, but here's

1332
00:58:27,270 --> 00:58:28,960
what we're going to do.

1333
00:58:28,960 --> 00:58:32,970
So the experiment has two kinds
of stimuli, basically.

1334
00:58:32,970 --> 00:58:35,250
One of them are adjectives
that are pleasant or

1335
00:58:35,250 --> 00:58:35,630
unpleasant.

1336
00:58:35,630 --> 00:58:38,840
everybody agrees that murderer
or sicknesses is unpleasant,

1337
00:58:38,840 --> 00:58:43,470
everybody agrees cheer and
peace are pleasant.

1338
00:58:43,470 --> 00:58:49,480
The second category or stimuli
that are relevant are names

1339
00:58:49,480 --> 00:58:52,260
that are selected in these
experiments to be usually

1340
00:58:52,260 --> 00:58:55,070
thought of-- and of course
it's a generalization--

1341
00:58:55,070 --> 00:59:00,610
to be found for people who are
European-Americans and more

1342
00:59:00,610 --> 00:59:03,280
likely to be associated with
African-Americans.

1343
00:59:03,280 --> 00:59:04,630
OK?

1344
00:59:04,630 --> 00:59:07,500
All right, I mean you'll see,
the experiment has to work

1345
00:59:07,500 --> 00:59:09,210
this way but I'll talk with you
about other versions of it

1346
00:59:09,210 --> 00:59:10,610
that don't depend
on exactly this.

1347
00:59:10,610 --> 00:59:11,160
OK?

1348
00:59:11,160 --> 00:59:12,510
it doesn't really matter.

1349
00:59:12,510 --> 00:59:16,010
you can think about things and
ask questions in a minute.

1350
00:59:16,010 --> 00:59:20,980
So what I'm going to ask you
to do, This you're going to

1351
00:59:20,980 --> 00:59:24,730
see a list like this
of adjectives.

1352
00:59:24,730 --> 00:59:34,460
Go from top to bottom if it's
an unpleasant word you tap

1353
00:59:34,460 --> 00:59:36,400
with your left on your desk, it
it's a pleasant word with

1354
00:59:36,400 --> 00:59:37,000
the right hand.

1355
00:59:37,000 --> 00:59:38,140
From top to bottom.

1356
00:59:38,140 --> 00:59:39,580
And I'll just read
you the times

1357
00:59:39,580 --> 00:59:40,790
as we go, on a stopwatch.

1358
00:59:40,790 --> 00:59:41,410
Ready?

1359
00:59:41,410 --> 00:59:47,420
So left hand if it's unpleasant,
right hand if it's

1360
00:59:47,420 --> 00:59:49,490
pleasant, OK?

1361
00:59:49,490 --> 01:00:05,600
Here we go 9 seconds, 10
seconds, or 11 seconds, 13

1362
01:00:05,600 --> 01:00:07,360
seconds, 14.

1363
01:00:07,360 --> 01:00:08,760
OK all right, there's
some practice effect

1364
01:00:08,760 --> 01:00:10,010
and all that stuff.

1365
01:00:15,920 --> 01:00:21,100
OK now you're going
to have the names.

1366
01:00:21,100 --> 01:00:25,430
Tap with you left hand if it's
a name that's more typical of

1367
01:00:25,430 --> 01:00:27,120
an African-American, your
right hand if it's more

1368
01:00:27,120 --> 01:00:28,430
typical of a European-American.

1369
01:00:28,430 --> 01:00:28,690
Ready?

1370
01:00:28,690 --> 01:00:29,940
Go.

1371
01:00:37,510 --> 01:00:54,282
5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13 OK.

1372
01:00:54,282 --> 01:00:57,970
OK, tap with your left hand if
the adjective is an unpleasant

1373
01:00:57,970 --> 01:01:00,650
adjective or the name of an
African-American, your right

1374
01:01:00,650 --> 01:01:02,680
hand if it's pleasant
or the name of a

1375
01:01:02,680 --> 01:01:03,830
typical white American.

1376
01:01:03,830 --> 01:01:06,720
OK so now it's a mixed list.

1377
01:01:06,720 --> 01:01:07,950
Ready?

1378
01:01:07,950 --> 01:01:25,330
Go 5 10 12,13,14,15.

1379
01:01:25,330 --> 01:01:27,480
OK, so by about 15 we got
pretty much everybody.

1380
01:01:31,900 --> 01:01:35,810
OK, we'll do this now, left
for a name typically

1381
01:01:35,810 --> 01:01:38,130
associated in this kind of
experiment for a white

1382
01:01:38,130 --> 01:01:39,560
American, right for
a black American.

1383
01:01:39,560 --> 01:01:39,950
Ready?

1384
01:01:39,950 --> 01:01:41,200
Go.

1385
01:01:49,600 --> 01:01:59,440
8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13,14 OK.

1386
01:01:59,440 --> 01:02:01,380
Now this is the last
one coming up.

1387
01:02:01,380 --> 01:02:05,360
So now it's going to be left
hand if it's a unpleasant

1388
01:02:05,360 --> 01:02:09,900
adjective or a white American
name, on the right if it's a

1389
01:02:09,900 --> 01:02:12,290
pleasant or a black
American name.

1390
01:02:12,290 --> 01:02:13,710
Ready?

1391
01:02:13,710 --> 01:02:14,960
Go.

1392
01:02:23,230 --> 01:02:36,900
8 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14,15
,16, 17,18,19, 20, 21,

1393
01:02:36,900 --> 01:02:38,270
Still tapping, right?

1394
01:02:38,270 --> 01:02:40,400
All right, so this is
a shock, right?

1395
01:02:40,400 --> 01:02:42,420
I mean if you don't know this
lecture, it's a shock.

1396
01:02:42,420 --> 01:02:46,500
And it's a shock because this
effect, which you heard

1397
01:02:46,500 --> 01:02:50,040
yourself, happens in

1398
01:02:50,040 --> 01:02:52,220
undergraduates across this country.

1399
01:02:52,220 --> 01:02:55,550
People who are very convinced
that racism is wrong, they

1400
01:02:55,550 --> 01:03:00,050
hold no stereotypes themselves
and with racism is wrong,

1401
01:03:00,050 --> 01:03:01,250
they're definitely
right about that.

1402
01:03:01,250 --> 01:03:05,670
Definitely don't foster
a stereotype, I

1403
01:03:05,670 --> 01:03:08,090
mean you don't either.

1404
01:03:08,090 --> 01:03:10,305
But in experiment after
experiment in a country, and

1405
01:03:10,305 --> 01:03:13,680
there's literally hundreds of
these published, people on

1406
01:03:13,680 --> 01:03:16,880
average are faster when they
have to do unpleasant and

1407
01:03:16,880 --> 01:03:20,600
black or unpleasant white as if
it were easier to associate

1408
01:03:20,600 --> 01:03:21,390
these two concepts.

1409
01:03:21,390 --> 01:03:25,440
And we just did now you are the
easy condition you were

1410
01:03:25,440 --> 01:03:27,450
all done in about 15 seconds.

1411
01:03:27,450 --> 01:03:31,090
In the more difficult condition,
the unpleasant or

1412
01:03:31,090 --> 01:03:33,830
white condition, there was still
tapping occurring at 20

1413
01:03:33,830 --> 01:03:35,430
could have gone to 25 or 30.

1414
01:03:35,430 --> 01:03:37,440
OK so you had that
experience, too.

1415
01:03:37,440 --> 01:03:39,690
I heard you going I think
giggling, I think

1416
01:03:39,690 --> 01:03:41,470
just because of shock.

1417
01:03:41,470 --> 01:03:44,920
Because you say, if you're like
me, you say I harbor no

1418
01:03:44,920 --> 01:03:47,640
prejudices, how did
this happen to me?

1419
01:03:47,640 --> 01:03:51,150
So this experiment, and you
could look up a lot of

1420
01:03:51,150 --> 01:03:53,890
information about this from
Mazarin Banaji at Harvard,

1421
01:03:53,890 --> 01:03:55,760
who's sort of the leader of
this, with Tony Greenwald.

1422
01:03:55,760 --> 01:03:59,420
They have a huge amount of
evidence about this.

1423
01:03:59,420 --> 01:04:03,820
So one thing you kind of laughed
at, because it was so

1424
01:04:03,820 --> 01:04:05,590
silly almost, the way
we set up here,

1425
01:04:05,590 --> 01:04:07,720
were the names, right?

1426
01:04:07,720 --> 01:04:09,470
Because it was kind of a
funny list of names.

1427
01:04:09,470 --> 01:04:11,680
I could tell you the experiment
work identically,

1428
01:04:11,680 --> 01:04:14,740
just about, if you
show pictures of

1429
01:04:14,740 --> 01:04:15,910
white or black people.

1430
01:04:15,910 --> 01:04:19,070
So the names is not an issue
in that case, OK?

1431
01:04:19,070 --> 01:04:20,570
So it's a shocking thing.

1432
01:04:20,570 --> 01:04:23,860
And where does it come from
that people are faster for

1433
01:04:23,860 --> 01:04:25,990
white and pleasant than
black and pleasant?

1434
01:04:25,990 --> 01:04:31,860
That occurs in 75% or people who
are white and about 50% of

1435
01:04:31,860 --> 01:04:32,510
people who are black.

1436
01:04:32,510 --> 01:04:35,500
So it's not as if black people
reverse that pattern, it's

1437
01:04:35,500 --> 01:04:36,760
just they're even.

1438
01:04:36,760 --> 01:04:40,600
And on average for white people
they find just easier

1439
01:04:40,600 --> 01:04:45,340
to associate white things with
pleasant things than black

1440
01:04:45,340 --> 01:04:46,990
names or faces with
pleasant things.

1441
01:04:46,990 --> 01:04:47,778
Yeah?

1442
01:04:47,778 --> 01:04:49,892
AUDIENCE: Was the experiment
ever done any other way, where

1443
01:04:49,892 --> 01:04:54,620
you would tap first
or [INAUDIBLE]?

1444
01:04:54,620 --> 01:04:55,600
PROFESSOR: Yes, yes.

1445
01:04:55,600 --> 01:04:59,460
So you are absolutely correct
that in the demonstration now,

1446
01:04:59,460 --> 01:05:01,410
I slightly loaded up
the order of these

1447
01:05:01,410 --> 01:05:02,810
things to make it work.

1448
01:05:02,810 --> 01:05:08,190
But why I give you this website
is to tell you that in

1449
01:05:08,190 --> 01:05:11,160
hundreds of experiments where
that's all controlled for by

1450
01:05:11,160 --> 01:05:12,880
reversing the order, half
the time and stuff,

1451
01:05:12,880 --> 01:05:13,920
it all plays out.

1452
01:05:13,920 --> 01:05:14,390
OK?

1453
01:05:14,390 --> 01:05:17,510
It's a demonstration today,
slightly loaded it that way

1454
01:05:17,510 --> 01:05:18,950
but there's hundreds of
experiments where

1455
01:05:18,950 --> 01:05:19,820
it all plays out.

1456
01:05:19,820 --> 01:05:21,800
In these numbers are first the
actual experiments where it

1457
01:05:21,800 --> 01:05:23,180
all plays out.

1458
01:05:23,180 --> 01:05:25,990
People worry about whether the
frequency of the names, that a

1459
01:05:25,990 --> 01:05:30,210
name like Chip might be more
frequent, common than a name

1460
01:05:30,210 --> 01:05:32,360
that's an African American name,
just by shear number.

1461
01:05:32,360 --> 01:05:35,740
So therefore the pictures get
it out of the equation.

1462
01:05:35,740 --> 01:05:38,140
People have worried about lots
of things about this.

1463
01:05:38,140 --> 01:05:41,430
I think almost everybody agrees
the basic phenomenon

1464
01:05:41,430 --> 01:05:44,270
holds up under well-controlled
experimental designs.

1465
01:05:44,270 --> 01:05:46,100
That's an excellent question.

1466
01:05:46,100 --> 01:05:47,250
Any other questions
about this?

1467
01:05:47,250 --> 01:05:50,950
It's a very disturbing thing,
partly it shows you that

1468
01:05:50,950 --> 01:05:53,930
stereotypes are out there,
unfortunately, to this day.

1469
01:05:53,930 --> 01:05:56,980
Even with an African American
president, stereotypes are out

1470
01:05:56,980 --> 01:05:58,650
there, in people's heads.

1471
01:05:58,650 --> 01:06:01,560
They used to call it
a test of implicit

1472
01:06:01,560 --> 01:06:03,050
attitudes because it--

1473
01:06:03,050 --> 01:06:06,900
but now is this really an
attitude to the person has in

1474
01:06:06,900 --> 01:06:07,300
their head?

1475
01:06:07,300 --> 01:06:08,770
Or is it really they
know about a

1476
01:06:08,770 --> 01:06:10,160
stereotype that's out there?

1477
01:06:10,160 --> 01:06:12,420
It's still problematic to have
the stereotypes out there,

1478
01:06:12,420 --> 01:06:14,170
even if it's not the
one you believe in,

1479
01:06:14,170 --> 01:06:15,340
subscribe to, or live by.

1480
01:06:15,340 --> 01:06:16,083
Yeah?

1481
01:06:16,083 --> 01:06:18,383
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] actually
[INAUDIBLE] for the

1482
01:06:18,383 --> 01:06:20,865
experiment.

1483
01:06:20,865 --> 01:06:27,860
And whether they found that it
was more associated with your

1484
01:06:27,860 --> 01:06:29,110
own proof--

1485
01:06:34,310 --> 01:06:36,780
PROFESSOR: So with African
Americans it's about 50-50 on

1486
01:06:36,780 --> 01:06:38,670
average, across them.

1487
01:06:38,670 --> 01:06:39,490
It not reverse.

1488
01:06:39,490 --> 01:06:43,870
It's not like, my group is
awesome, all other groups are

1489
01:06:43,870 --> 01:06:46,140
not so awesome as my group
because I'm in my group.

1490
01:06:46,140 --> 01:06:48,590
It could be that, and that also
would be problematic as

1491
01:06:48,590 --> 01:06:49,990
much as anything.

1492
01:06:49,990 --> 01:06:51,350
But it doesn't seem to
play out that way.

1493
01:06:51,350 --> 01:06:54,080
It seems to play out a little
bit to what you might call--

1494
01:06:54,080 --> 01:06:56,160
and then this will change, my
guess is-- to what is the

1495
01:06:56,160 --> 01:06:58,770
dominant group in a society.

1496
01:06:58,770 --> 01:07:00,840
And now the US is changing
in this regard, OK?

1497
01:07:00,840 --> 01:07:04,590
But it's not changed yet.

1498
01:07:04,590 --> 01:07:06,760
And you get these kinds of
things in lots of domains,

1499
01:07:06,760 --> 01:07:08,490
we've talked about that
before it's not just

1500
01:07:08,490 --> 01:07:09,610
about black and white.

1501
01:07:09,610 --> 01:07:11,540
But the last thing
I'll show you--

1502
01:07:11,540 --> 01:07:13,950
we'll be done in five minutes,
it's just two slides.

1503
01:07:13,950 --> 01:07:16,570
It's sort of a follow
up on this.

1504
01:07:16,570 --> 01:07:19,220
So here's an experiment that
was done at Dartmouth.

1505
01:07:19,220 --> 01:07:22,130
And they had white participants
complete this

1506
01:07:22,130 --> 01:07:25,270
task that you just did under
better control circumstances.

1507
01:07:25,270 --> 01:07:28,130
So for each person they could
measure by how quickly they

1508
01:07:28,130 --> 01:07:31,680
responded in the computer the
difference between responding

1509
01:07:31,680 --> 01:07:33,740
to black and white names in
relation to pleasantness.

1510
01:07:33,740 --> 01:07:37,270
So some person might be 10
milliseconds, different

1511
01:07:37,270 --> 01:07:39,930
somebody might be 200
milliseconds different.

1512
01:07:39,930 --> 01:07:42,940
People vary.

1513
01:07:42,940 --> 01:07:45,760
But then they had them go
to a different room--

1514
01:07:45,760 --> 01:07:47,370
and this is the critical thing--
to interact with

1515
01:07:47,370 --> 01:07:49,690
either a black or white
experimenter.

1516
01:07:49,690 --> 01:07:52,200
All the participants in this
experiment were white.

1517
01:07:52,200 --> 01:07:55,760
Then they were told the reason
we're doing this is, we want

1518
01:07:55,760 --> 01:07:57,800
to videotape you making comments
about the college

1519
01:07:57,800 --> 01:08:00,350
fraternity system and racial
profiling after 9/11.

1520
01:08:00,350 --> 01:08:02,600
That's kind of a cover story,
although the racial word was

1521
01:08:02,600 --> 01:08:06,120
probably meant for them to think
a little bit about the

1522
01:08:06,120 --> 01:08:07,000
test they did.

1523
01:08:07,000 --> 01:08:09,150
They go into a room they
interact with a black or white

1524
01:08:09,150 --> 01:08:12,420
experiment then they go back to
the original room and they

1525
01:08:12,420 --> 01:08:15,580
perform a cognitively demanding
task, the Stroop

1526
01:08:15,580 --> 01:08:18,560
task where you have to name
colors that are in the wrong

1527
01:08:18,560 --> 01:08:21,180
color, which you've
seen many times in

1528
01:08:21,180 --> 01:08:22,170
this course you already.

1529
01:08:22,170 --> 01:08:24,880
And here's what they find.

1530
01:08:24,880 --> 01:08:27,630
if you're a white person and you
had a white experimenter,

1531
01:08:27,630 --> 01:08:30,310
this is the performance
on the Stroop task.

1532
01:08:30,310 --> 01:08:34,710
It's unrelated to how you
did on the IAT test.

1533
01:08:34,710 --> 01:08:38,750
This is the IAT test, the people
who are more along here

1534
01:08:38,750 --> 01:08:41,660
had a bigger gap between
black and white, OK?

1535
01:08:41,660 --> 01:08:43,180
So they varied.

1536
01:08:43,180 --> 01:08:46,140
But look at the people who went
and took the IAT test

1537
01:08:46,140 --> 01:08:48,950
like you just did, again under
more controlled circumstances.

1538
01:08:48,950 --> 01:08:51,804
Now they go and do the Stroop
and look at the more their

1539
01:08:51,804 --> 01:08:55,779
score reflected knowledge of the
stereotype, the more the

1540
01:08:55,779 --> 01:08:58,600
knowledge of that stereotype
influenced in some way their

1541
01:08:58,600 --> 01:08:59,600
performance--

1542
01:08:59,600 --> 01:09:01,479
that's along this axis--

1543
01:09:01,479 --> 01:09:06,439
the worse they did on the sort
of cognitively demanding task.

1544
01:09:06,439 --> 01:09:14,160
As if the stress that harms
performance is occurring on

1545
01:09:14,160 --> 01:09:17,260
both sides of racial
groups, right?

1546
01:09:17,260 --> 01:09:19,790
We already said that stereotype
threat can diminish

1547
01:09:19,790 --> 01:09:23,040
performance for people when
they're working in the area

1548
01:09:23,040 --> 01:09:24,200
where there's a stereotypes
that they're not

1549
01:09:24,200 --> 01:09:25,390
supposed to do well.

1550
01:09:25,390 --> 01:09:28,020
Just thinking about that
diminishes their performance.

1551
01:09:28,020 --> 01:09:31,370
And now for the other group for
the white participants,

1552
01:09:31,370 --> 01:09:33,439
just thinking about
the stereotyping--

1553
01:09:33,439 --> 01:09:34,770
and you may have that too.

1554
01:09:34,770 --> 01:09:36,450
Just thinking like, what I do?

1555
01:09:36,450 --> 01:09:37,700
Why was I slower for that?

1556
01:09:37,700 --> 01:09:39,710
I'm not a prejudiced person,
how did I do that?

1557
01:09:39,710 --> 01:09:43,529
The more their performance
looked like that, the worse

1558
01:09:43,529 --> 01:09:44,819
they did on this task.

1559
01:09:44,819 --> 01:09:48,370
As if again, now they were
having a part of their mind in

1560
01:09:48,370 --> 01:09:50,430
the wrong place or
over-aroused and

1561
01:09:50,430 --> 01:09:52,740
under-performing.

1562
01:09:52,740 --> 01:09:56,460
So everybody's falling victim,
on both sides of this

1563
01:09:56,460 --> 01:09:59,600
prospective, to these
racial stereotypes.

1564
01:09:59,600 --> 01:10:02,990
Whether you're black or white,
it's disturbing to have that

1565
01:10:02,990 --> 01:10:05,930
thought and it diminishes your
ability think clearly.

1566
01:10:05,930 --> 01:10:10,060
So in that sense stereotypes
makes you stupider on

1567
01:10:10,060 --> 01:10:12,100
performance in a cognitively
demanding task.

1568
01:10:12,100 --> 01:10:15,250
there's so many forms of stress
and the one good thing

1569
01:10:15,250 --> 01:10:17,880
is, psychologists are getting
better and better at

1570
01:10:17,880 --> 01:10:20,000
discovering sources
of resilience.

1571
01:10:20,000 --> 01:10:22,570
And we talked earlier in the
course, it includes resilience

1572
01:10:22,570 --> 01:10:23,420
from stereotyped threat.

1573
01:10:23,420 --> 01:10:26,520
We'd like to just get rid of
stereotypes today, but pending

1574
01:10:26,520 --> 01:10:28,640
that we've talked about things
like essays and so on that

1575
01:10:28,640 --> 01:10:31,430
work surprisingly risk
effectively sometimes.

1576
01:10:31,430 --> 01:10:32,680
OK thanks very much.