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PROFESSOR: OK, most
of the hour we'll

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be watching the first half
of the video on chimpanzees,

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but I wanted to finish, revise,
revise a little bit on motor

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learning to try to make it clear
what I'm trying to get across.

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So let's just go through
motor learning again.

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The acquisition of path
habits I talked about,

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the main point here
is the movements

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acquired independence
from sensory input.

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So it's not that
they're continually

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responding to things
all along their path.

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If it becomes learned
in the motor system,

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they just run it off like
a fixed motor pattern.

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You remember when we talked
about fixed action patterns

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in birds, the geese and ducks,
the way you roll the eggs in.

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If you interrupt
it, they just have

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to start all over again if
they're going to do it at all.

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It's a single pattern.

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That's what this path
learning amounts to.

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It becomes encoded
in the cerebellum.

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OK, so, it's like when you
recite something from memory

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or learn to play a
musical instrument.

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You probably have all
had the experience

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of you're reciting something
and you don't quite

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have it learned perfectly,
so you get stuck.

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And then, to
remember it, you have

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to go back to the
beginning or to some chunk,

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beginning of some chunk,
before you can do it.

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That's because
you've learned it.

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If you memorize something it
often becomes motor learning.

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OK, so, and it acquires
some similarities

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to the motor component
of fixed action patterns.

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As I mentioned here.

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And then it gets very
resistant to change.

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And perhaps most interesting
is that in many cases

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it seems to acquire its own
action-specific potential.

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That is, it requires a
motivation for the animal

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to do it, or the person.

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It usually requires
a lot of repetition.

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Like when you learn
skills, sport.

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We talked about the
difference in locomotion

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between these
different ungulates

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and what sure-footedness is.

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It's an example of, the
more sure-footed animals,

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simply, there's more
separate elements

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in their action pattern.

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So more subject, we would say,
subject to voluntary control.

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We can decide to use it.

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And so I've reworded
this just a little bit

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to help you understand
what that's all about.

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But I think it's clear
enough with that.

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I wanted to add this about
the exploratory-- sorry, what

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did I do here?

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Oh, this got out of place.

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OK, this belongs
with the discussion

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of voluntary behavior.

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Animals that have evolved
direct axonal projections

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from the neocortex
to the motor neurons.

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There aren't all that many,
but higher primates have that.

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Raccoons have it.

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A few other species.

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Then the unit of movement is
just the digital movement.

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That's the smallest
unit you can get.

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And animals that have
that, like us, yes, we

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have voluntary control
for individual digits.

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Someone can tell you, could you
move just your little finger,

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and you could do it.

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We can't do it very well
for the fourth finger, but.

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In general, we have
that kind of control,

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but most movements are not that.

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We can't control just individual
sets of muscles like that.

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Most movements we don't have
that kind of voluntary control

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over.

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And that is true for other
animals, of course, even more.

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And I mention here that I
talk about these projections

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from motor cortex and the motor
areas of cortex in a mammal,

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but if you talk about birds,
they don't have a neocortex,

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but they have
equivalent structures.

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Especially this
hyperpallium region.

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And it becomes so well-developed
in the more advanced birds,

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like the corvids, parrots.

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It forms a bulge.

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And they actually
have a motor wulst,

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they have a somatosensory
wulst, visual wulst.

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That's the equivalent
of those areas.

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And they also have these direct
projections to the spinal cord.

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I'm not sure if they go
directly to motor neurons

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as they do in the higher
primates, but that's possible.

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So OK.

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Although I reworded
this a little bit,

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we talked about exploratory
behavior and curiosity before,

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00:06:03,350 --> 00:06:07,020
so I don't think we
have to go through that.

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I just want to point out
here in the functions of play

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he actually introduces
what amounts

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to three additional
types of learning.

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All learned in play.

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So they amount to
a different kind

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of learning than learning
in other situations.

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So I list them there.

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And then we talked about
research on art and humans.

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But that's where
we ended yesterday.

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You can go through all these
different kinds of learning,

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and neuroscientists can relate
them to specific structures.

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For example, the habituation
and sensitization,

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these learning
without association.

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It can even happen
in spinal pathways.

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So all the sensory
motor pathways

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can be subject to
that kind of change.

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The other things of
interest are the-- not

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just the cerebellar
mechanisms for motor learning

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but for the simple
habit formation,

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including avoidance responses
learned through trauma.

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They involved the
corpus striatum

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responsible for many habits.

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It's especially
true of this type

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of learning affected by the
consequences of behavior.

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And here's what we were
going through before.

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But one more thing I wanted
to go through in just a little

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bit.

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And that is another
way to classify

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learning is to begin with
the brain mechanisms.

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And here I just focus
on the forebrain.

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I've not tried to do it for--
because we don't know enough

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really about the various
kinds of synaptic mechanisms,

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various kinds of
anatomical changes.

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This field is
still pretty young.

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But we do know quite a bit
about involvement of forebrain

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pathways and the kinds of
learning they're involved in.

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So we can separate, then,
learning object location

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in the sense of an
egocentric localization.

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So if I glance at
this group here,

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I can retain in my memory,
at least very briefly,

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a working memory of
where various things are

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in this room.

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In fact, some
people can actually

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see it if they shut their eyes.

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I can't.

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I was talking to
one of the students

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in this class about this.

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Probably 5% to 10%
of you could do it.

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But you all have that ability.

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You could remember briefly.

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And we call that working memory.

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OK, the egocentric
position, meaning

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where from the position of my
head and eyes something is.

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The door's over
there, and there I

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know that's a wall,
so on and so forth.

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And some of these, even if
I've seen it only briefly,

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I will retain.

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So that's a very simple
kind of learning.

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And we know about the
pathways involved in that.

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As for object identity, we know
it's another kind of learning.

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But we also now have another
kind of localization.

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Namely, allocentric
localization.

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Where am I in this environment?

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Where am I in this building?

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Where am in Cambridge?

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And so on and so forth.

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And we're learning
that all the time.

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And then I had
listed other things,

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like learning and sensory
motor coordination, movement

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patterns.

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That's easier to
relate to the things

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that Lawrence is talking about.

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What about the
formation of plants?

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That's a kind of learning.

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Because we're changing them
all the time in our brain.

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OK?

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Involving prefrontal
areas of the cortex.

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And then I go through
this a little more,

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expanding the object
location to include

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objects associated with places.

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So the places are kind
of-- we remember those,

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but in a kind of allocentric
orientation to place.

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That's with respect
to the environment,

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not with respect to where
we are at the moment.

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But that's a kind of
association learning.

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We associate objects
with specific places.

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And we're only in
the last few years

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learning how that is
done in the brain.

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And of course we know a lot
about learning about identity.

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I just mentioned some
of the characteristics

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from a behavioral point of view.

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And then ways to
classify them according

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to potential uses,
which neuroscientists

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don't pay a lot of attention to.

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Here's the thing about
learning knowledge of place.

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Besides a very rapid
assessment of where

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we are, what we call
seeing perception,

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we learn where we are with
respect to visual landmarks.

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For primates, that's
probably the major one.

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For many animals it's
olfactory, the smell of a place,

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it's more important.

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But we also have
many animals we know

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learn where they are with
respect to a more global map.

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Magnetic cues, infrared,
infrasound patterns.

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We even learn place
in a time cycle,

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but we know least about that.

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And I also want to
point out that we

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have this knowledge we've
acquired anticipated positions.

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Because every time we move
our head around, our eyes,

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we're activating we're
activating long-term memories.

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00:11:49,170 --> 00:11:52,190
But in the spatial system,
putting it in anatomical terms,

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00:11:52,190 --> 00:11:56,840
we're activating a system
connected with our head, head

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00:11:56,840 --> 00:12:00,850
direction, that's
activating memories.

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We're aware of what's in
that direction, what's

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in this direction, and so forth.

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00:12:06,460 --> 00:12:09,220
That's how we know
which way to go.

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00:12:09,220 --> 00:12:13,170
So it's connected with our
motivational system as well as

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00:12:13,170 --> 00:12:14,940
the highest systems
of the brain.

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00:12:14,940 --> 00:12:17,030
Hippocampal
formation is involved

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in learning those things.

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All right.

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00:12:22,110 --> 00:12:26,560
So we need to fill out a lot
of gaps in the Lawrence types.

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And I count about 19 separate
types in Lawrence descriptions.

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And if you include those
[? Ibulitiz ?] [? filled ?]

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types he describes, that hasn't
been fully integrated with

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the other means of
classifying learning.

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OK, I'm going to stop there
and turn on the video.

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Some of you may have seen this.

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Some content has been removed
due to copyright restrictions.

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See the readings and viewings
page for more information.