1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:00,024 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:00,024 --> 00:00:00,030 Commons license. 3 00:00:00,030 --> 00:00:00,054 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare continue to 4 00:00:00,054 --> 00:00:00,075 offer high quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:00,075 --> 00:00:00,386 To make a donation, or view additional materials from 6 00:00:00,386 --> 00:00:00,778 hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare at 7 00:00:00,778 --> 00:00:16,840 ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:16,840 --> 00:00:26,290 PROFESSOR: Welcome to 5.111, and today what we're going to 9 00:00:26,290 --> 00:00:29,390 do is introduce you to the course and the people teaching 10 00:00:29,390 --> 00:00:30,370 the course. 11 00:00:30,370 --> 00:00:34,110 And we're also going to let you know that you were going 12 00:00:34,110 --> 00:00:37,990 to be part of the great web exercise that is OCW, 13 00:00:37,990 --> 00:00:39,850 OpenCourseWare. 14 00:00:39,850 --> 00:00:43,460 So, this course is being videotaped this year, and this 15 00:00:43,460 --> 00:00:46,810 is the announcement that I have to make. 16 00:00:46,810 --> 00:00:52,050 So, the videotape is in the back, and if you want to come 17 00:00:52,050 --> 00:00:55,115 up front and participate in the class, you know that 18 00:00:55,115 --> 00:00:59,000 you'll be videotaped -- if you want to hide your face or 19 00:00:59,000 --> 00:01:01,550 whatever, you can do that but please pay attention to the 20 00:01:01,550 --> 00:01:02,910 lectures anyway. 21 00:01:02,910 --> 00:01:07,720 So, this course will be available on the OCW site in 22 00:01:07,720 --> 00:01:09,770 the future, I'm not sure exactly what that date is 23 00:01:09,770 --> 00:01:13,020 going to be. 24 00:01:13,020 --> 00:01:15,460 So, today we're going to introduce the chemistry 25 00:01:15,460 --> 00:01:18,800 topics, which we will cover in 5.111, and give you general 26 00:01:18,800 --> 00:01:21,090 information, practical information about the course 27 00:01:21,090 --> 00:01:23,710 number of points you need, when the exams are, that kind 28 00:01:23,710 --> 00:01:26,030 of thing, policies, and introduce you to 29 00:01:26,030 --> 00:01:27,110 the teaching staff. 30 00:01:27,110 --> 00:01:29,720 I am, again, Professor Cathy Drennan, and I'm one of the 31 00:01:29,720 --> 00:01:32,410 lecturers in this course. 32 00:01:32,410 --> 00:01:36,150 So, because this is MIT, we're going to start to quiz. 33 00:01:36,150 --> 00:01:40,070 OK, not a quiz for points or anything, don't freak out, but 34 00:01:40,070 --> 00:01:50,950 I do want you to tell me who these people are. 35 00:01:50,950 --> 00:01:54,140 So, what about this person? 36 00:01:54,140 --> 00:01:59,430 That's me -- this is my college yearbook photo. 37 00:01:59,430 --> 00:02:01,620 OK, what about this person over here? 38 00:02:01,620 --> 00:02:06,610 STUDENT: You? 39 00:02:06,610 --> 00:02:09,850 PROFESSOR: It's not me again. 40 00:02:09,850 --> 00:02:12,310 Not Elizabeth Taylor. 41 00:02:12,310 --> 00:02:23,750 It is Lisa Kudrow, known as Phoebe on "Friends." So, we 42 00:02:23,750 --> 00:02:26,450 both went to college at the same time, we 43 00:02:26,450 --> 00:02:27,690 went to the same college. 44 00:02:27,690 --> 00:02:33,160 Does anybody know what college that was? 45 00:02:33,160 --> 00:02:33,510 STUDENT: Vassar. 46 00:02:33,510 --> 00:02:35,430 PROFESSOR: Vassar College, very good. 47 00:02:35,430 --> 00:02:39,540 And we graduated the same year -- now no one has to say what 48 00:02:39,540 --> 00:02:42,400 year that was, even if you know, but we did 49 00:02:42,400 --> 00:02:44,290 graduate the same year. 50 00:02:44,290 --> 00:02:45,170 All right. 51 00:02:45,170 --> 00:02:51,780 So, given what you know about us, what do you think Lisa 52 00:02:51,780 --> 00:02:53,280 went to college to study? 53 00:02:53,280 --> 00:02:56,750 STUDENT: Computer? 54 00:02:56,750 --> 00:02:58,200 PROFESSOR: Computers? 55 00:02:58,200 --> 00:02:59,650 No. 56 00:02:59,650 --> 00:03:00,420 STUDENT: Theatre? 57 00:03:00,420 --> 00:03:00,880 PROFESSOR: Theatre? 58 00:03:00,880 --> 00:03:01,650 Surprisingly, no. 59 00:03:01,650 --> 00:03:02,710 STUDENT: Nuclear Engineering? 60 00:03:02,710 --> 00:03:04,520 PROFESSOR: Nuclear Engineering at Vassar, no for 61 00:03:04,520 --> 00:03:08,120 a variety of reasons. 62 00:03:08,120 --> 00:03:08,940 Any other guesses? 63 00:03:08,940 --> 00:03:11,040 STUDENT: English? 64 00:03:11,040 --> 00:03:11,720 PROFESSOR: English, no. 65 00:03:11,720 --> 00:03:13,280 Biology -- 66 00:03:13,280 --> 00:03:15,260 I heard it. 67 00:03:15,260 --> 00:03:16,990 Biology. 68 00:03:16,990 --> 00:03:19,670 What do you think I went to college to study? 69 00:03:19,670 --> 00:03:21,750 STUDENT: Theatre. 70 00:03:21,750 --> 00:03:24,670 PROFESSOR: Theatre, correct! 71 00:03:24,670 --> 00:03:28,610 And/or I hadn't made up my mind exactly -- 72 00:03:28,610 --> 00:03:31,300 biopsychology or drama. 73 00:03:31,300 --> 00:03:33,920 So, biopsychology was what they called sort of brain and 74 00:03:33,920 --> 00:03:36,530 cognitive sciences in those days. 75 00:03:36,530 --> 00:03:40,580 So, those were the two things I was thinking about. 76 00:03:40,580 --> 00:03:44,000 What do you think Lisa ended up majoring in college? 77 00:03:44,000 --> 00:03:46,490 STUDENT: Biopsychology. 78 00:03:46,490 --> 00:03:50,210 PROFESSOR: Not biopsychology. 79 00:03:50,210 --> 00:03:50,490 STUDENT: Biology. 80 00:03:50,490 --> 00:03:57,180 PROFESSOR: Biology, yes. 81 00:03:57,180 --> 00:03:59,000 What do you think I majored in college? 82 00:03:59,000 --> 00:04:00,060 This should be a bit easier. 83 00:04:00,060 --> 00:04:01,300 STUDENT: Chemistry. 84 00:04:01,300 --> 00:04:05,660 PROFESSOR: Chemistry, And, of course, our professions, 85 00:04:05,660 --> 00:04:09,160 actress and chemistry professor. 86 00:04:09,160 --> 00:04:15,960 So, let me ask what happened here? 87 00:04:15,960 --> 00:04:19,410 My understanding about Lisa Kudrow is that she came from a 88 00:04:19,410 --> 00:04:20,770 Hollywood family. 89 00:04:20,770 --> 00:04:23,650 She went to college and said here's my opportunity to study 90 00:04:23,650 --> 00:04:26,390 the thing that I find most interesting, and that was 91 00:04:26,390 --> 00:04:29,490 biology, and then she went back and participated in the 92 00:04:29,490 --> 00:04:33,450 family business, which was of course the acting profession. 93 00:04:33,450 --> 00:04:35,410 For me, what happened? 94 00:04:35,410 --> 00:04:42,220 Well, I have to say, I did not like chemistry in high school, 95 00:04:42,220 --> 00:04:45,920 so I did not think about going to college to study chemistry. 96 00:04:45,920 --> 00:04:50,010 So, why did I not like chemistry in high school? 97 00:04:50,010 --> 00:04:56,420 I think it was because of images such as this one. 98 00:04:56,420 --> 00:04:58,730 You spend a lot of time talking about the transition 99 00:04:58,730 --> 00:05:00,680 between alchemy and modern chemistry. 100 00:05:00,680 --> 00:05:03,580 I wasn't very interested in that kind of thing, and 101 00:05:03,580 --> 00:05:05,870 there's nothing in these photographs that really 102 00:05:05,870 --> 00:05:07,810 appealed to me personally. 103 00:05:07,810 --> 00:05:08,690 I mean, Avogadro -- 104 00:05:08,690 --> 00:05:14,050 I'm fond of his number, and he is, in fact, an interesting, 105 00:05:14,050 --> 00:05:18,770 if not frightening looking man -- this just didn't 106 00:05:18,770 --> 00:05:21,160 connect with me. 107 00:05:21,160 --> 00:05:23,130 But then I got to college and they said, "Well, if you're 108 00:05:23,130 --> 00:05:26,950 thinking about anything bio -- biopsychology, biology -- you 109 00:05:26,950 --> 00:05:31,890 have to take chemistry." And I said to my advisor, "No, no. 110 00:05:31,890 --> 00:05:35,530 I have taken chemistry in high school, and I can assure you 111 00:05:35,530 --> 00:05:38,500 that chemistry has no relevance whatsoever to the 112 00:05:38,500 --> 00:05:42,210 life sciences." And they said, "Well, I'm sorry you feel that 113 00:05:42,210 --> 00:05:46,010 way, it's incorrect, and you have to take it anyway." 114 00:05:46,010 --> 00:05:51,120 So, I, like some of you in this room, took freshman 115 00:05:51,120 --> 00:05:54,870 chemistry, because we had to, not because we wanted to. 116 00:05:54,870 --> 00:05:58,540 And I, like hopefully some of you in this room, discovered 117 00:05:58,540 --> 00:06:01,620 that chemistry was actually a lot of fun, and that the 118 00:06:01,620 --> 00:06:05,030 chemistry I got in college was pretty much nothing like the 119 00:06:05,030 --> 00:06:07,780 chemistry I had seen in high school. 120 00:06:07,780 --> 00:06:09,930 So, let me introduce you to some of the topics we are 121 00:06:09,930 --> 00:06:14,590 going to be covering in chemistry this semester. 122 00:06:14,590 --> 00:06:18,470 So, there's more detail on your syllabus -- a detail of 123 00:06:18,470 --> 00:06:20,810 what we'll cover every day, but these are the kind of 124 00:06:20,810 --> 00:06:23,010 basic things that were covering, and you don't need 125 00:06:23,010 --> 00:06:25,060 to write this down, you'll become familiar with it as the 126 00:06:25,060 --> 00:06:27,280 semester goes on. 127 00:06:27,280 --> 00:06:29,900 We start out with some really basic principles. 128 00:06:29,900 --> 00:06:34,050 So, up here, atomic theory, periodic table, bonding, 129 00:06:34,050 --> 00:06:35,560 structures and molecules. 130 00:06:35,560 --> 00:06:40,990 And there will be a little bit of history in there, but this 131 00:06:40,990 --> 00:06:45,330 is mostly modern chemistry and represents the basic 132 00:06:45,330 --> 00:06:48,960 properties of matter, and it's basic properties of all 133 00:06:48,960 --> 00:06:51,860 matter, including living matter, which was what really 134 00:06:51,860 --> 00:06:55,070 interested me, that connection between chemistry and biology. 135 00:06:55,070 --> 00:06:57,050 So, then we go to thermodynamics and chemical 136 00:06:57,050 --> 00:07:00,850 equilibrium, and this is really about chemical 137 00:07:00,850 --> 00:07:04,051 reactions -- weather a reaction will go, will it be 138 00:07:04,051 --> 00:07:06,330 spontaneous, if there an equilibrium, what direction 139 00:07:06,330 --> 00:07:09,590 will the reaction be shifted in. 140 00:07:09,590 --> 00:07:12,350 And then, of course, not just whether the reaction will 141 00:07:12,350 --> 00:07:15,830 occur but, how fast it occurs is really important. 142 00:07:15,830 --> 00:07:19,500 So, that's kinetics -- how fast a reaction will go, and 143 00:07:19,500 --> 00:07:21,910 from the perspective of someone who's a biochemist, 144 00:07:21,910 --> 00:07:25,350 I'm interested in kinetics and enzyme kinetics, and thinking 145 00:07:25,350 --> 00:07:29,060 about molecules that catalyze reactions in the body. 146 00:07:29,060 --> 00:07:31,760 And then, there's acid base equilibrium, and also 147 00:07:31,760 --> 00:07:36,030 oxidation reduction reactions, and what is true is that most 148 00:07:36,030 --> 00:07:38,100 reactions that occur are either catalyzed by either 149 00:07:38,100 --> 00:07:40,880 some kind of acid base catalysis or involve some kind 150 00:07:40,880 --> 00:07:44,510 of oxidation reduction reaction, and so, this sort of 151 00:07:44,510 --> 00:07:50,100 represents a lot of the basic way reactions go -- now, 152 00:07:50,100 --> 00:07:52,830 whether that's a reaction in your body or a reaction in a 153 00:07:52,830 --> 00:07:54,790 test tube -- it doesn't matter, a lot of the same 154 00:07:54,790 --> 00:07:56,450 principles are involved. 155 00:07:56,450 --> 00:07:58,620 And then, we also cover transition metals, which is 156 00:07:58,620 --> 00:08:01,570 something that you often don't see in high school. 157 00:08:01,570 --> 00:08:04,060 And transition metals, those all medals in the middle of 158 00:08:04,060 --> 00:08:07,240 your periodic table, have some really unique properties, 159 00:08:07,240 --> 00:08:09,840 which are exploited again in reactions that occur in your 160 00:08:09,840 --> 00:08:13,270 body, and also are utilized in industry, for example, so 161 00:08:13,270 --> 00:08:15,960 we'll talk about some of those unique properties. 162 00:08:15,960 --> 00:08:20,090 And if we put all of that together, we get the real 163 00:08:20,090 --> 00:08:22,650 fundamentals that you need to go on and study -- any kind of 164 00:08:22,650 --> 00:08:24,710 curriculum that involves chemistry. 165 00:08:24,710 --> 00:08:28,440 So, these are all the fundamentals that are involved 166 00:08:28,440 --> 00:08:31,630 in chemistry that relate to physical chemistry, organic 167 00:08:31,630 --> 00:08:34,670 chemistry, inorganic chemistry, biological 168 00:08:34,670 --> 00:08:37,040 chemistry, and are a solid foundation for studying any 169 00:08:37,040 --> 00:08:38,510 kind of life science. 170 00:08:38,510 --> 00:08:41,880 So, I congratulate you of being here in this class, this 171 00:08:41,880 --> 00:08:44,830 is really good solid foundation for whatever you go 172 00:08:44,830 --> 00:08:47,460 on to do, here at MIT. 173 00:08:47,460 --> 00:08:50,900 So, normally at this point, we do actually start class with a 174 00:08:50,900 --> 00:08:54,760 little bit of history from alchemy to modern chemistry, 175 00:08:54,760 --> 00:08:58,040 but I decided to skip that this year. 176 00:08:58,040 --> 00:09:00,680 If you are interested in that, it's never required on any 177 00:09:00,680 --> 00:09:04,140 test, it never has been, but if you're interested in that 178 00:09:04,140 --> 00:09:08,070 there is an OCW lecture, which you can listen to that's an 179 00:09:08,070 --> 00:09:10,580 excellent lecture by Professor Sylvia Ceyer on that. 180 00:09:10,580 --> 00:09:13,800 But today instead, I thought I would give you some examples 181 00:09:13,800 --> 00:09:18,500 of modern chemistry -- why people now need to know 182 00:09:18,500 --> 00:09:21,200 chemistry, what they're doing with chemistry, what is 183 00:09:21,200 --> 00:09:25,330 chemistry research here at MIT, and how does it utilize 184 00:09:25,330 --> 00:09:27,590 these basic principles, which we'll be talking 185 00:09:27,590 --> 00:09:29,420 about in the course. 186 00:09:29,420 --> 00:09:31,870 So, I'll start with my colleague, 187 00:09:31,870 --> 00:09:33,620 Professor Joanne Stubbe. 188 00:09:33,620 --> 00:09:35,680 She studies molecules, in particular she studies 189 00:09:35,680 --> 00:09:37,500 biological molecules. 190 00:09:37,500 --> 00:09:40,310 And, so one of the things she's very interested in is 191 00:09:40,310 --> 00:09:43,470 how this anti-cancer drug, gemcitabine, 192 00:09:43,470 --> 00:09:45,270 works in the body. 193 00:09:45,270 --> 00:09:48,020 So, it inhibits an enzyme, and she's interested in knowing 194 00:09:48,020 --> 00:09:49,620 how that really works. 195 00:09:49,620 --> 00:09:52,690 So, enzymes are made up of amino acids, you have long 196 00:09:52,690 --> 00:09:55,980 chains of amino acids that form together into a protein 197 00:09:55,980 --> 00:09:58,710 molecules, protein molecules in your body often act as 198 00:09:58,710 --> 00:10:00,880 enzymes, catalyzing reactions. 199 00:10:00,880 --> 00:10:03,820 So, she is interested in how this molecule, gemcitabine, 200 00:10:03,820 --> 00:10:06,380 inhibits an enzyme. 201 00:10:06,380 --> 00:10:09,455 So, to do those studies, she needs to know a lot of the 202 00:10:09,455 --> 00:10:10,510 stuff on this list. 203 00:10:10,510 --> 00:10:13,170 Of course, she needs to know the basic principles, but 204 00:10:13,170 --> 00:10:15,430 she's also talking about it an enzyme, so she needs to know 205 00:10:15,430 --> 00:10:17,490 about enzyme catalysis. 206 00:10:17,490 --> 00:10:21,290 She needs to know this enzyme works by both acid base 207 00:10:21,290 --> 00:10:23,220 chemistry, and oxidation reduction. 208 00:10:23,220 --> 00:10:26,980 It has two irons that are involved in doing the 209 00:10:26,980 --> 00:10:29,610 chemistry, so it includes transition metals. 210 00:10:29,610 --> 00:10:32,450 She thinks about how things bind, how the natural 211 00:10:32,450 --> 00:10:35,230 reactants binds, how the inhibitor binds, and so she 212 00:10:35,230 --> 00:10:37,482 needs to know what happens to the chemical equilibrium, she 213 00:10:37,482 --> 00:10:39,170 needs to know about the thermodynamics of those 214 00:10:39,170 --> 00:10:42,280 binding events, and, of course, everything, all the 215 00:10:42,280 --> 00:10:44,620 basic principles, are required here. 216 00:10:44,620 --> 00:10:48,380 So, to do this biochemistry research, she needs to know 217 00:10:48,380 --> 00:10:52,330 all of these things, and she has really made tremendous 218 00:10:52,330 --> 00:10:55,040 progress in understanding how gemcitabine works, and it is 219 00:10:55,040 --> 00:10:59,860 not so toxic, so it's a really good thing to have in 220 00:10:59,860 --> 00:11:01,770 chemotherapy. 221 00:11:01,770 --> 00:11:04,860 So, in addition to studying molecules, chemists often want 222 00:11:04,860 --> 00:11:07,890 to make molecules, such as Tim Jamison, 223 00:11:07,890 --> 00:11:09,940 who's an organic chemist. 224 00:11:09,940 --> 00:11:14,170 So, you will hear, probably, hopefully, in this 225 00:11:14,170 --> 00:11:17,470 presidential debate about the environment and about why 226 00:11:17,470 --> 00:11:19,290 saving the environment is important. 227 00:11:19,290 --> 00:11:21,480 And one of the things you often hear about in this 228 00:11:21,480 --> 00:11:25,340 discussion is about our oceans and about rainforests, and 229 00:11:25,340 --> 00:11:28,740 part of the reason why people want to protect those areas is 230 00:11:28,740 --> 00:11:30,740 because you find a lot of natural 231 00:11:30,740 --> 00:11:32,480 products in those regions. 232 00:11:32,480 --> 00:11:34,530 So, a natural product is something that is made by 233 00:11:34,530 --> 00:11:36,880 nature, and often natural products, whether it comes 234 00:11:36,880 --> 00:11:39,960 from a plant or a marine organism have some really 235 00:11:39,960 --> 00:11:41,730 good, useful properties. 236 00:11:41,730 --> 00:11:45,330 And so, one particular compound has anti-tumor 237 00:11:45,330 --> 00:11:45,790 properties. 238 00:11:45,790 --> 00:11:48,760 So, again, along this line of cancer research. 239 00:11:48,760 --> 00:11:51,850 So, Tim Jamison's lab figured out how to make this thing. 240 00:11:51,850 --> 00:11:55,300 And often that's really important, because you can't 241 00:11:55,300 --> 00:11:58,920 get enough of the organism that naturally makes it, to be 242 00:11:58,920 --> 00:12:01,670 able to grind that organism up and have enough that you can 243 00:12:01,670 --> 00:12:03,030 actually use as a medicine. 244 00:12:03,030 --> 00:12:06,040 So, you have to make more of it, because nature doesn't 245 00:12:06,040 --> 00:12:06,850 make enough. 246 00:12:06,850 --> 00:12:10,290 So, it's very important to figure out how to do that. 247 00:12:10,290 --> 00:12:14,120 So, in doing that, Tim Jamison's lab needs a lot of 248 00:12:14,120 --> 00:12:15,250 these things. 249 00:12:15,250 --> 00:12:18,610 So, he needs a lot of knowledge of bonding, he wants 250 00:12:18,610 --> 00:12:20,370 to form bonds in making this. 251 00:12:20,370 --> 00:12:22,700 He needs to know about the structures of the molecules, 252 00:12:22,700 --> 00:12:25,920 because if the structure is wrong it's not going to work. 253 00:12:25,920 --> 00:12:28,060 And often, if you want to make a lot of it, you have to think 254 00:12:28,060 --> 00:12:29,870 about the thermodynamics of the system, how fast the 255 00:12:29,870 --> 00:12:32,380 reactions will go and kinetics, and then whether 256 00:12:32,380 --> 00:12:33,885 they'll go, the thermodynamics, and sometimes 257 00:12:33,885 --> 00:12:40,130 then you need to adjust the reactions, maybe use a 258 00:12:40,130 --> 00:12:42,190 transition metal to make it go better. 259 00:12:42,190 --> 00:12:45,810 So, these are all the things that Tim Jamison needs to know 260 00:12:45,810 --> 00:12:47,110 to do organic chemistry. 261 00:12:47,110 --> 00:12:50,000 So, you'll be learning in this class a great preparation for 262 00:12:50,000 --> 00:12:53,280 512, which is organic chemistry. 263 00:12:53,280 --> 00:12:56,250 In addition to studying molecules and making 264 00:12:56,250 --> 00:13:00,590 molecules, some chemists want to detect molecules, and a 265 00:13:00,590 --> 00:13:04,250 chemist who likes to detect molecules is Tim Swager. 266 00:13:04,250 --> 00:13:07,800 So, Tim Swager's lab has designed sensors that detect 267 00:13:07,800 --> 00:13:11,590 vapors, and so they will detect TNT, for example. 268 00:13:11,590 --> 00:13:14,810 And so, he has put this chemistry to use in this 269 00:13:14,810 --> 00:13:19,300 robotic arm and they call it Fido, because often dogs are 270 00:13:19,300 --> 00:13:22,080 the creatures that have to go out and detect these things, 271 00:13:22,080 --> 00:13:26,430 and it's not a great job if you're a dog to be sent out to 272 00:13:26,430 --> 00:13:28,630 see whether there was an explosive and discover yes, 273 00:13:28,630 --> 00:13:30,740 there was, a little bit too late. 274 00:13:30,740 --> 00:13:35,640 So, this is a much nicer way to detect chemicals with this 275 00:13:35,640 --> 00:13:39,960 robotic arm, and here's a picture of it in use in Iraq. 276 00:13:39,960 --> 00:13:43,730 So, in doing this, if you go down to kind of a basic 277 00:13:43,730 --> 00:13:47,060 principles that Tim needed to know about, oxidation 278 00:13:47,060 --> 00:13:50,520 reduction was really key in developing this technology, so 279 00:13:50,520 --> 00:13:53,170 we'll talk about that. 280 00:13:53,170 --> 00:13:57,520 So, my final example is from Alan Davidson's lab, and Alan 281 00:13:57,520 --> 00:14:01,070 is an inorganic chemist -- he loved those transition metals 282 00:14:01,070 --> 00:14:04,850 and they're unique properties, and he designed this compound, 283 00:14:04,850 --> 00:14:08,560 it's called Cardiolite, and it's used in heart imaging. 284 00:14:08,560 --> 00:14:12,830 So, many people have relatives they know of that have had to 285 00:14:12,830 --> 00:14:16,140 have their heart imaged -- heart disease is a major 286 00:14:16,140 --> 00:14:18,840 problem in the United States, and there's a good chance that 287 00:14:18,840 --> 00:14:20,910 they had Cardiolite given to them to help in 288 00:14:20,910 --> 00:14:22,270 that imaging process. 289 00:14:22,270 --> 00:14:26,410 So, this again, takes advantage of those great 290 00:14:26,410 --> 00:14:30,440 unique properties of transition metals, which we'll 291 00:14:30,440 --> 00:14:32,510 talk about in this course. 292 00:14:32,510 --> 00:14:36,270 So, again, all together, this is the basis for modern 293 00:14:36,270 --> 00:14:39,550 chemistry, and examples I just gave you, are some of the 294 00:14:39,550 --> 00:14:42,430 things that modern chemists are working on -- some of the 295 00:14:42,430 --> 00:14:45,570 issues that our country faces and our world faces, and how 296 00:14:45,570 --> 00:14:48,550 chemistry is involved in that. 297 00:14:48,550 --> 00:14:52,140 So, not only will you have the fundamental knowledge to go on 298 00:14:52,140 --> 00:14:56,010 and take more courses in chemistry, you will also have 299 00:14:56,010 --> 00:14:59,360 the fundamental knowledge to go on and do undergraduate 300 00:14:59,360 --> 00:15:03,120 research here, and here are some of the 5.111 301 00:15:03,120 --> 00:15:07,460 undergraduate researchers that have come through my lab, in 302 00:15:07,460 --> 00:15:10,260 particular, from this class. 303 00:15:10,260 --> 00:15:14,130 So, it's a really nice solid foundation. 304 00:15:14,130 --> 00:15:17,910 So, I want to encourage you to set some of your likes and 305 00:15:17,910 --> 00:15:22,010 dislikes from high school aside when you come to MIT, 306 00:15:22,010 --> 00:15:25,840 because at MIT you often see disciplines taught and 307 00:15:25,840 --> 00:15:27,960 emphasize a very different fashion than 308 00:15:27,960 --> 00:15:29,030 what you've seen before. 309 00:15:29,030 --> 00:15:31,380 And you may discover that the thing you came here to study 310 00:15:31,380 --> 00:15:32,770 is not the thing that you really want 311 00:15:32,770 --> 00:15:34,860 to study after all. 312 00:15:34,860 --> 00:15:38,300 One other thing that I'll say to you is that I said these 313 00:15:38,300 --> 00:15:41,730 words at one point, it's true, I said, when I was in high 314 00:15:41,730 --> 00:15:49,570 school, I said, "I hate chemistry." And now, I do 315 00:15:49,570 --> 00:15:56,120 chemistry every day and will for the rest my life. 316 00:15:56,120 --> 00:15:57,490 I love chemistry now. 317 00:15:57,490 --> 00:15:59,480 Be very careful what you say. 318 00:15:59,480 --> 00:16:01,070 Have any of you made that statement 319 00:16:01,070 --> 00:16:04,150 about hating a subject? 320 00:16:04,150 --> 00:16:06,750 Tell me later what it is you're going to be doing for 321 00:16:06,750 --> 00:16:09,850 the rest of your life. 322 00:16:09,850 --> 00:16:13,030 So, at MIT things are very different, and keep an open 323 00:16:13,030 --> 00:16:16,510 mind, explore new areas -- take advantage of being at 324 00:16:16,510 --> 00:16:19,370 this amazing place for science and technology and you may 325 00:16:19,370 --> 00:16:25,430 surprise yourself in what you really enjoy learning about. 326 00:16:25,430 --> 00:16:28,555 So, that's a little bit about the chemistry that we're going 327 00:16:28,555 --> 00:16:32,660 to cover in this class, and now I'm going to talk a little 328 00:16:32,660 --> 00:16:35,460 bit about some of the policies and procedures. 329 00:16:35,460 --> 00:16:39,210 But first I need to introduce my co-instructor for this 330 00:16:39,210 --> 00:16:43,280 class, and let me just put up her picture, you'll 331 00:16:43,280 --> 00:16:44,310 see her in a minute. 332 00:16:44,310 --> 00:16:47,040 So, Dr. Beth Vogel Taylor. 333 00:16:47,040 --> 00:16:50,910 So, all chemistry courses are team taught, so you have a 334 00:16:50,910 --> 00:16:53,240 different lecturer for the first half than the second 335 00:16:53,240 --> 00:16:56,690 half, and Dr. Taylor will be doing most of the first half 336 00:16:56,690 --> 00:16:57,960 lectures, and I'll be doing most of 337 00:16:57,960 --> 00:16:59,360 the second half lectures. 338 00:16:59,360 --> 00:17:02,870 So, Dr. Taylor will take you from atomic theory through 339 00:17:02,870 --> 00:17:05,750 thermodynamics, and I'll start up with chemical equilibrium, 340 00:17:05,750 --> 00:17:09,630 talk to about kinetics, acid base, oxidation reduction and 341 00:17:09,630 --> 00:17:10,920 transition metals. 342 00:17:10,920 --> 00:17:14,560 So, you will have both of us as lecturers in this class. 343 00:17:14,560 --> 00:17:18,190 Now, in the past, sometimes students have found this whole 344 00:17:18,190 --> 00:17:20,860 thing a little frustrating, that they just get used to one 345 00:17:20,860 --> 00:17:23,370 lecture style, and then all of a sudden there's another 346 00:17:23,370 --> 00:17:26,340 lecture style, and that can be true. 347 00:17:26,340 --> 00:17:30,450 I mean sometimes the styles of the two professors couldn't be 348 00:17:30,450 --> 00:17:32,740 more different -- think McCain/Palin, odd couples. 349 00:17:32,740 --> 00:17:39,450 Sometimes they're more similar, and when I first, 350 00:17:39,450 --> 00:17:42,410 about a year and a half ago, got to know Dr. Taylor, we 351 00:17:42,410 --> 00:17:45,830 sort of realized that we had very similar styles, and we 352 00:17:45,830 --> 00:17:48,170 got very excited about the idea that we could teach 353 00:17:48,170 --> 00:17:50,730 together, so that there would be much more continuity 354 00:17:50,730 --> 00:17:51,960 throughout the semester. 355 00:17:51,960 --> 00:17:54,860 And so, Dr. Taylor had been teaching the first half of the 356 00:17:54,860 --> 00:17:58,050 material in the Spring, and I had been teaching the second 357 00:17:58,050 --> 00:18:00,740 half of the material in the Fall, and we thought wouldn't 358 00:18:00,740 --> 00:18:04,300 it be great if we got together and taught in the Fall. 359 00:18:04,300 --> 00:18:06,920 So, this was actually, for a variety of reasons, a very 360 00:18:06,920 --> 00:18:10,520 complicated thing to request and do, and so we started a 361 00:18:10,520 --> 00:18:13,880 campaign and campaigned for a year and a half that we should 362 00:18:13,880 --> 00:18:17,330 be allowed to do this course together, and finally just a 363 00:18:17,330 --> 00:18:20,250 few weeks ago in August -- we really didn't know up until 364 00:18:20,250 --> 00:18:22,560 almost when this course started -- that 365 00:18:22,560 --> 00:18:24,070 permission was granted. 366 00:18:24,070 --> 00:18:29,470 So, I have to say, I am very excited now to introduce you 367 00:18:29,470 --> 00:18:33,970 to Dr. Taylor, who I would be teaching with this semester -- 368 00:18:33,970 --> 00:18:36,540 limited engagement -- who will tell you about some of the 369 00:18:36,540 --> 00:18:37,430 course policies. 370 00:18:37,430 --> 00:18:47,070 PROFESSOR: Okay, so before we get to some of these course 371 00:18:47,070 --> 00:18:51,150 policies, I think I'll tell you a little bit about my path 372 00:18:51,150 --> 00:18:52,540 to chemistry as well. 373 00:18:52,540 --> 00:18:56,390 Professor Drennan explained that not everyone that ends up 374 00:18:56,390 --> 00:19:00,360 as a chemist started off that way on their first class 375 00:19:00,360 --> 00:19:03,240 freshman year, for example, in chemistry. 376 00:19:03,240 --> 00:19:06,350 And in fact, if you talk to a lot of chemists, if you talk 377 00:19:06,350 --> 00:19:08,940 to some of the graduate students, maybe your TA, 378 00:19:08,940 --> 00:19:12,650 you'll find that that phrase, "I hate chemistry," has maybe 379 00:19:12,650 --> 00:19:16,540 been uttered by more than one us at some point in our lives 380 00:19:16,540 --> 00:19:19,430 before we realized, and once it happens you don't go back, 381 00:19:19,430 --> 00:19:21,650 that actually you love chemistry and it's hard to 382 00:19:21,650 --> 00:19:24,330 even remember a point where you didn't see all of these 383 00:19:24,330 --> 00:19:26,330 connections that it provided for you. 384 00:19:26,330 --> 00:19:29,010 To give a little background of where I was, sitting where 385 00:19:29,010 --> 00:19:32,330 maybe you are today on the first day of chemistry, when I 386 00:19:32,330 --> 00:19:35,790 left high school, I had no interest in chemistry 387 00:19:35,790 --> 00:19:36,710 whatsoever. 388 00:19:36,710 --> 00:19:39,740 And I have only one strong memory from high school 389 00:19:39,740 --> 00:19:44,050 chemistry, and that memory is shown right here, and that is 390 00:19:44,050 --> 00:19:45,260 the common ions. 391 00:19:45,260 --> 00:19:47,690 Did you guys have to learn the common ions? 392 00:19:47,690 --> 00:19:51,990 Does anyone have that in their brain somewhere for ready use? 393 00:19:51,990 --> 00:19:54,400 I don't, in fact, so it's actually okay if you don't 394 00:19:54,400 --> 00:19:57,350 know all your common ions, if you missed that part. 395 00:19:57,350 --> 00:20:00,790 This is the strongest memory I have, and I remembered a) that 396 00:20:00,790 --> 00:20:02,940 I didn't learn them, and that was really bad because it kept 397 00:20:02,940 --> 00:20:06,040 coming up, but the other thing I remember is that I had no 398 00:20:06,040 --> 00:20:07,780 idea why they were important. 399 00:20:07,780 --> 00:20:09,740 I didn't really understand what any of 400 00:20:09,740 --> 00:20:11,270 these molecules were. 401 00:20:11,270 --> 00:20:14,270 I certainly didn't understand how they even connected really 402 00:20:14,270 --> 00:20:17,390 to chemical reactions, much less other disciplines that I 403 00:20:17,390 --> 00:20:18,480 was interested in. 404 00:20:18,480 --> 00:20:20,560 I couldn't have told you, for example, if we look at a 405 00:20:20,560 --> 00:20:22,870 phosphate group, that that's going to be incredibly 406 00:20:22,870 --> 00:20:26,340 important in DNA, that it's also an incredibly important 407 00:20:26,340 --> 00:20:28,630 group when you're dealing with proteins and whether you're 408 00:20:28,630 --> 00:20:31,220 turning the function of a protein on or off. 409 00:20:31,220 --> 00:20:33,850 So really, I just had no context for the chemistry. 410 00:20:33,850 --> 00:20:37,210 So, when I started in college, that wasn't even an option for 411 00:20:37,210 --> 00:20:39,360 me and I was interested in a lot of things, 412 00:20:39,360 --> 00:20:40,320 chemistry not being one. 413 00:20:40,320 --> 00:20:45,490 But one that I was very interested in was biology, and 414 00:20:45,490 --> 00:20:48,730 the reason was we did a lot of cool labs in high school, I 415 00:20:48,730 --> 00:20:51,630 loved doing the dissections -- it was very interesting to me 416 00:20:51,630 --> 00:20:54,410 to think about how different organs worked, how the heart 417 00:20:54,410 --> 00:20:56,880 could be a pump, how the lungs worked. 418 00:20:56,880 --> 00:20:59,590 And then when we got to more of a cellular level, it was 419 00:20:59,590 --> 00:21:02,210 even more interesting to see that we could actually 420 00:21:02,210 --> 00:21:05,610 understand how our body worked as low of a level as thinking 421 00:21:05,610 --> 00:21:07,500 about cells. 422 00:21:07,500 --> 00:21:09,690 And so, that was a clear major for me to pick -- 423 00:21:09,690 --> 00:21:11,820 I actually also was considering English and ended 424 00:21:11,820 --> 00:21:12,980 up being a minor in English. 425 00:21:12,980 --> 00:21:15,850 But, I think what most of you, actually having come to MIT, 426 00:21:15,850 --> 00:21:18,820 have probably realized is sometimes it's nice to major 427 00:21:18,820 --> 00:21:21,260 in a science, because you can't just pick up a reaction 428 00:21:21,260 --> 00:21:23,250 and do it in your kitchen on the weekend, where as you can 429 00:21:23,250 --> 00:21:25,500 sometimes join a book group and do that. 430 00:21:25,500 --> 00:21:28,610 So, it's kind of nice to major in the thing that you're going 431 00:21:28,610 --> 00:21:31,180 to get to have the opportunity to do for the 432 00:21:31,180 --> 00:21:32,370 rest of your life. 433 00:21:32,370 --> 00:21:34,320 So, I actually also started pre-med. 434 00:21:34,320 --> 00:21:37,050 Is anyone else pre-med here? 435 00:21:37,050 --> 00:21:38,800 Okay, so a pretty good showing. 436 00:21:38,800 --> 00:21:41,290 So maybe you can relate to some of the reasons I wanted 437 00:21:41,290 --> 00:21:43,590 to be pretty pre-med -- part of it was the interest in the 438 00:21:43,590 --> 00:21:44,980 science and the biology. 439 00:21:44,980 --> 00:21:47,800 Also, I wanted to help people -- it seemed like a really 440 00:21:47,800 --> 00:21:50,730 clear way that I could have a career that was challenging 441 00:21:50,730 --> 00:21:53,030 and involved in science, but also helping others. 442 00:21:53,030 --> 00:21:56,230 So, it seemed like a good start for me, pre-med/bio, and 443 00:21:56,230 --> 00:21:58,560 I signed up for my bio class -- 444 00:21:58,560 --> 00:22:01,390 I found out, as Professor Drennan did, that I had to 445 00:22:01,390 --> 00:22:03,120 take chemistry as well. 446 00:22:03,120 --> 00:22:06,210 I wasn't as upset, I was sort of a neutral chemistry person 447 00:22:06,210 --> 00:22:08,570 at this point, but I thought it was pretty smart to get it 448 00:22:08,570 --> 00:22:10,270 over with on the first semester, so 449 00:22:10,270 --> 00:22:11,700 that's what I did. 450 00:22:11,700 --> 00:22:16,050 And my plan was going along fine until something happened, 451 00:22:16,050 --> 00:22:19,810 and what happened was that chemistry was just way more 452 00:22:19,810 --> 00:22:21,530 interesting than I anticipated. 453 00:22:21,530 --> 00:22:24,250 So, my perfect pre-med/bio plan was getting a little 454 00:22:24,250 --> 00:22:27,150 shaken right from the start, and the reason that it was 455 00:22:27,150 --> 00:22:29,610 getting taken was because I would learn this new principal 456 00:22:29,610 --> 00:22:32,780 in chemistry and because I was taking bio with the same time, 457 00:22:32,780 --> 00:22:34,430 I could see the connections. 458 00:22:34,430 --> 00:22:38,020 And at one point I realized, "Oh, my gosh, chemistry is 459 00:22:38,020 --> 00:22:40,910 just biology, it's just looking at one level deeper." 460 00:22:40,910 --> 00:22:44,200 So actually, all of my interest in biology was 461 00:22:44,200 --> 00:22:46,680 quickly transferred to saying, "Wow, now I can think about 462 00:22:46,680 --> 00:22:49,070 things on the molecular level." And one of the 463 00:22:49,070 --> 00:22:51,620 molecules that caught my attention first, and I can't 464 00:22:51,620 --> 00:22:53,950 remember if this was freshman or sophomore year in high 465 00:22:53,950 --> 00:22:57,700 school, was the first time I actually took meaning in 466 00:22:57,700 --> 00:22:59,840 looking at a chemical structure, and that was with 467 00:22:59,840 --> 00:23:02,800 the structure of penicillin here, and I know that all of 468 00:23:02,800 --> 00:23:05,330 you are familiar with penicillin, whether or not you 469 00:23:05,330 --> 00:23:08,300 know the structure or not, but the most important part of 470 00:23:08,300 --> 00:23:10,440 this structure is the four-membered ring here, the 471 00:23:10,440 --> 00:23:14,400 beta-lactam, and this was the first time I thought I could 472 00:23:14,400 --> 00:23:17,370 actually understand how a molecule worked because I knew 473 00:23:17,370 --> 00:23:19,130 something about chemistry. 474 00:23:19,130 --> 00:23:22,620 So, for example with penicillin what it does is it 475 00:23:22,620 --> 00:23:26,710 inhibits an enzyme that builds the cell wall in bacteria, the 476 00:23:26,710 --> 00:23:30,250 bacterial cell wall, and if I thought about what I'd learned 477 00:23:30,250 --> 00:23:32,230 in chemistry -- some of you know this from high school, 478 00:23:32,230 --> 00:23:34,980 some of you will be very familiar with this soon, is 479 00:23:34,980 --> 00:23:37,230 that this carbon here, for example, is 480 00:23:37,230 --> 00:23:38,720 bonded to three things. 481 00:23:38,720 --> 00:23:43,640 Does anyone know what angle those would like to be at? 482 00:23:43,640 --> 00:23:44,620 120. 483 00:23:44,620 --> 00:23:46,930 They want to get as far away from each other possible, the 484 00:23:46,930 --> 00:23:48,640 ideal angle is 120. 485 00:23:48,640 --> 00:23:51,270 But what we have here is a four-membered ring, so what 486 00:23:51,270 --> 00:23:54,660 angle does that have to be, that bond? 487 00:23:54,660 --> 00:23:56,140 90 degrees. 488 00:23:56,140 --> 00:23:58,750 So, we have a problem here if we're thinking about keeping 489 00:23:58,750 --> 00:24:01,120 things at the lowest energy, so there's a lot of ring 490 00:24:01,120 --> 00:24:02,410 strain in the system. 491 00:24:02,410 --> 00:24:05,130 And I was incredibly excited that I could look at that and 492 00:24:05,130 --> 00:24:07,530 realize it and say "Wow, that's why it's so reactive, 493 00:24:07,530 --> 00:24:10,470 that's why it's such a good medication," because when it 494 00:24:10,470 --> 00:24:13,590 comes into contact with these bacterial cell wall building 495 00:24:13,590 --> 00:24:17,420 enzyme, the enzyme can actually react with this 496 00:24:17,420 --> 00:24:19,690 four-membered ring and open up the ring and 497 00:24:19,690 --> 00:24:21,470 relieve that ring strain. 498 00:24:21,470 --> 00:24:24,560 So, now the angles can open up all the way to 120 if it wants 499 00:24:24,560 --> 00:24:26,740 to, and there's no way it's going to form that ring again, 500 00:24:26,740 --> 00:24:29,550 right, because it's not going to back to those 90 degree 501 00:24:29,550 --> 00:24:30,970 angles, if it can help it. 502 00:24:30,970 --> 00:24:33,940 So now, the enzyme is locked up with the penicillin 503 00:24:33,940 --> 00:24:37,380 molecule, no more bacterial cell wall being built, and the 504 00:24:37,380 --> 00:24:40,060 penicillin has effectively killed the bacteria. 505 00:24:40,060 --> 00:24:42,500 So, that, for me, was kind of the first connection that what 506 00:24:42,500 --> 00:24:44,770 went, "Woah, wait a second, I want to be thinking about 507 00:24:44,770 --> 00:24:47,250 these molecules all the way down to the level of 508 00:24:47,250 --> 00:24:51,570 individual atoms." So, at this point, kept the pre-med, just 509 00:24:51,570 --> 00:24:54,180 switched the major to chemistry. 510 00:24:54,180 --> 00:24:56,770 The next problem came up when I went and 511 00:24:56,770 --> 00:24:58,750 took organic chemistry. 512 00:24:58,750 --> 00:25:01,730 So, if you're dead set on staying with bio, maybe, I 513 00:25:01,730 --> 00:25:03,990 guess you have to take organic, so this might happen 514 00:25:03,990 --> 00:25:06,610 to you, just to warn you. 515 00:25:06,610 --> 00:25:08,890 We started looking at all sorts of other kinds of 516 00:25:08,890 --> 00:25:11,620 molecules that became very interesting to me. 517 00:25:11,620 --> 00:25:14,170 I especially love thinking about vitamins and drugs, 518 00:25:14,170 --> 00:25:16,050 because I do have that interest in 519 00:25:16,050 --> 00:25:17,420 medicine and human health. 520 00:25:17,420 --> 00:25:20,700 These are actually all examples that we'll talk about 521 00:25:20,700 --> 00:25:23,200 in freshman chemistry at some point, as an example of a 522 00:25:23,200 --> 00:25:25,790 connection between a chemical principle we learn, and what 523 00:25:25,790 --> 00:25:28,160 we can know about how it functions. 524 00:25:28,160 --> 00:25:31,740 But what happened here was I thought "Oh, my gosh, now I 525 00:25:31,740 --> 00:25:34,240 could actually, using my chemical knowledge, think 526 00:25:34,240 --> 00:25:38,100 about synthesizing these molecules, or maybe coming up 527 00:25:38,100 --> 00:25:41,150 with new ways to synthesize them better or synthesize 528 00:25:41,150 --> 00:25:42,380 different molecules. 529 00:25:42,380 --> 00:25:46,170 And the real clincher was when I started doing some 530 00:25:46,170 --> 00:25:47,960 undergraduate research. 531 00:25:47,960 --> 00:25:51,620 Any potential UROPs out there -- anyone planning to do a 532 00:25:51,620 --> 00:25:53,690 research at some point? 533 00:25:53,690 --> 00:25:54,420 Excellent. 534 00:25:54,420 --> 00:25:55,870 Okay. 535 00:25:55,870 --> 00:25:58,430 So, just to be warned, you might fall in love with the 536 00:25:58,430 --> 00:26:00,490 subject you do your UROP in. 537 00:26:00,490 --> 00:26:02,690 This is one of our summer students from this past 538 00:26:02,690 --> 00:26:04,270 summer, who is also premed. 539 00:26:04,270 --> 00:26:07,180 She's continuing to be pre-med, which is fantastic. 540 00:26:07,180 --> 00:26:09,430 That didn't happen to me -- once I got into the lab, I 541 00:26:09,430 --> 00:26:10,250 didn't want to leave. 542 00:26:10,250 --> 00:26:12,880 So, I thought, "You know what, I think I'll change the 543 00:26:12,880 --> 00:26:15,020 medical school plans and now I'm going to go all the way -- 544 00:26:15,020 --> 00:26:18,030 chemistry major, chemistry grad school." And the reason I 545 00:26:18,030 --> 00:26:20,920 was able to do that and keep with what my original 546 00:26:20,920 --> 00:26:23,120 intentions were was to have a career that was the 547 00:26:23,120 --> 00:26:25,510 fulfilling, in terms of helping people and being 548 00:26:25,510 --> 00:26:28,880 engaged in science, is all of a sudden I realized, as 549 00:26:28,880 --> 00:26:32,910 chemists, we can think about better ways to build molecules 550 00:26:32,910 --> 00:26:35,400 that are important for making medications. 551 00:26:35,400 --> 00:26:38,450 Another thing we can do is we can use our chemistry to 552 00:26:38,450 --> 00:26:41,650 understand biological systems, so we can help illucinate 553 00:26:41,650 --> 00:26:44,440 pathways, maybe, that are implicated in disease. 554 00:26:44,440 --> 00:26:46,740 So, the combination of these two things had made my 555 00:26:46,740 --> 00:26:49,340 decision and I ended up coming here for graduate school, 556 00:26:49,340 --> 00:26:52,840 actually, and working in Professor Imperiali's lab 557 00:26:52,840 --> 00:26:56,850 doing bio-organic chemistry, which means that I synthesize 558 00:26:56,850 --> 00:26:59,710 molecules, which I loved, and used them to 559 00:26:59,710 --> 00:27:01,620 study biological systems. 560 00:27:01,620 --> 00:27:05,060 So, really I'm pretty happy with what I've gotten to do, 561 00:27:05,060 --> 00:27:07,620 and I just want to say we're not trying to convert all of 562 00:27:07,620 --> 00:27:11,050 them you pre-med people, by any means. 563 00:27:11,050 --> 00:27:14,220 My roommate for many years was going to medical school as I 564 00:27:14,220 --> 00:27:17,330 was going to graduate school, and we found we had so many 565 00:27:17,330 --> 00:27:19,920 interesting conversations about chemistry -- her from 566 00:27:19,920 --> 00:27:24,300 the context of practicing and using medications and talking 567 00:27:24,300 --> 00:27:26,590 about how they worked on a molecular level, and me 568 00:27:26,590 --> 00:27:28,590 talking about my research.